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Papa Juan Pablo II

Juan Pablo II ( en latín : Ioannes Paulus II ; en polaco : Jan Paweł II ; en italiano : Giovanni Paolo II ; nacido Karol Józef Wojtyła ; en polaco: [ˈkarɔl ˈjuzɛv vɔjˈtɨwa] ; [b] 18 de mayo de 1920 - 2 de abril de 2005) fue jefe de la Iglesia católica y soberano del Estado de la Ciudad del Vaticano desde 1978 hasta su muerte en 2005 .

En su juventud, Wojtyła se dedicó a la interpretación teatral. Se graduó con excelentes calificaciones en un instituto masculino de Wadowice (Polonia) en 1938, poco después de que estallara la Segunda Guerra Mundial . Durante la guerra, para evitar ser secuestrado y enviado a un campo de trabajos forzados alemán , se apuntó a trabajar en duras condiciones en una cantera. Wojtyła acabó dedicándose a la interpretación y desarrolló un amor por la profesión y participó en un teatro local. Wojtyła, con gran habilidad lingüística, quería estudiar polaco en la universidad. Animado por una conversación con Adam Stefan Sapieha , decidió estudiar teología y convertirse en sacerdote. Con el tiempo, Wojtyła ascendió al puesto de arzobispo de Cracovia y luego a cardenal , ambos cargos ocupados por su mentor. Wojtyła fue elegido papa el tercer día del segundo cónclave papal de 1978 y se convirtió en uno de los papas más jóvenes de la historia. El cónclave fue convocado tras la muerte de Juan Pablo I , que ejerció el pontificado durante sólo 33 días. Wojtyla adoptó el nombre de su predecesor en homenaje a él. [9]

Juan Pablo II fue el primer papa no italiano desde Adriano VI en el siglo XVI, así como el tercer papa con más años en el cargo en la historia después de Pío IX y San Pedro . Juan Pablo II intentó mejorar las relaciones de la Iglesia católica con el judaísmo , el islam y la Iglesia ortodoxa oriental en el espíritu del ecumenismo , considerando al ateísmo como la mayor amenaza. Mantuvo las posiciones anteriores de la Iglesia en asuntos como el aborto, la anticoncepción artificial , la ordenación de mujeres y un clero célibe, y aunque apoyó las reformas del Concilio Vaticano II , fue visto como generalmente conservador en su interpretación. [10] [11] Puso énfasis en la familia y la identidad, al tiempo que cuestionaba el consumismo, el hedonismo y la búsqueda de la riqueza. Fue uno de los líderes mundiales que más viajó en la historia, visitando 129 países durante su pontificado . Como parte de su énfasis especial en el llamado universal a la santidad , Juan Pablo II beatificó a 1.344 personas [ 12] y canonizó a 483 santos , más que el total combinado de sus predecesores durante los cinco siglos anteriores. Al momento de su muerte, había nombrado a la mayoría del Colegio Cardenalicio , consagrado o co-consagrado a muchos de los obispos del mundo y ordenado a muchos sacerdotes. [13]

Se le atribuye la lucha contra las dictaduras por la democracia y por ayudar a poner fin al régimen comunista en su Polonia natal y el resto de Europa. [14] Bajo Juan Pablo II, la Iglesia católica expandió enormemente su influencia en África y América Latina y mantuvo su influencia en Europa y el resto del mundo. El 19 de diciembre de 2009, Juan Pablo II fue proclamado venerable por su sucesor, Benedicto XVI , y el 1 de mayo de 2011 ( Domingo de la Divina Misericordia ) fue beatificado . El 27 de abril de 2014 fue canonizado junto con Juan XXIII . [15] Se le ha criticado por supuestamente, como arzobispo, no haber sido lo suficientemente duro al actuar contra el abuso sexual de niños por parte de sacerdotes en Polonia, [16] aunque las acusaciones en sí mismas han sido criticadas. [17] [18] Póstumamente, algunos católicos se han referido a él como el Papa San Juan Pablo el Grande , aunque ese título no tiene reconocimiento oficial. [19]

Bajo el gobierno de Juan Pablo II, se redactaron y pusieron en vigor las dos constituciones más importantes de la Iglesia católica contemporánea: el Código de Derecho Canónico de 1983 , que, entre muchas cosas, inició un esfuerzo para frenar el abuso sexual en la Iglesia católica ; y el Catecismo de la Iglesia Católica , que entre otras cosas aclaró la posición de la Iglesia sobre la homosexualidad .

Primeros años de vida

El retrato de boda de los padres de Juan Pablo II, Emilia y Karol Wojtyla Sr.

Karol Józef Wojtyła nació en la ciudad polaca de Wadowice . [20] [21] Fue el menor de los tres hijos de Karol Wojtyła (1879-1941), un polaco étnico , y Emilia Kaczorowska (1884-1929), que era de ascendencia lituana lejana. [22] Emilia, que era maestra de escuela, murió de un ataque cardíaco e insuficiencia renal en 1929 [23] cuando Wojtyła tenía ocho años. [24] Su hermana mayor Olga había muerto antes de su nacimiento, pero era cercano a su hermano Edmund, apodado Mundek, que era 13 años mayor que él. El trabajo de Edmund como médico finalmente lo llevó a morir de escarlatina , una pérdida que afectó profundamente a Wojtyła. [22] [24]

Wojtyła fue bautizado un mes después de su nacimiento, hizo su Primera Comunión a la edad de 9 años y fue confirmado a la edad de 18. [25] Cuando era niño, Wojtyła era atlético, a menudo jugaba fútbol asociación como portero . [26] Durante su infancia, Wojtyła tuvo contacto con la gran comunidad judía de Wadowice . [27] Los partidos de fútbol escolares a menudo se organizaban entre equipos de judíos y católicos, y Wojtyła a menudo jugaba en el lado judío. [22] [26] En 2005, recordó: "Recuerdo que al menos un tercio de mis compañeros de clase en la escuela primaria en Wadowice eran judíos. En la escuela secundaria había menos. Con algunos estaba en términos muy amistosos. Y lo que me llamó la atención de algunos de ellos fue su patriotismo polaco ". [28] Fue en esta época cuando el joven Karol tuvo su primera relación seria con una chica. Se hizo amigo de una muchacha llamada Ginka Beer, descrita como "una belleza judía, con ojos estupendos y cabello negro azabache, delgada, una actriz magnífica". [29]

A mediados de 1938, Wojtyla y su padre abandonaron Wadowice y se mudaron a Cracovia , donde se matriculó en la Universidad Jagellónica . Mientras estudiaba filología y varios idiomas, trabajó como bibliotecario voluntario y, aunque se le exigió que participara en el entrenamiento militar obligatorio en la Legión Académica , se negó a disparar un arma. Actuó con varios grupos teatrales y trabajó como dramaturgo. [30] Durante este tiempo, su talento para los idiomas floreció y aprendió hasta 15 idiomas: polaco, latín , italiano, inglés, español, portugués, francés, alemán , luxemburgués , holandés, ucraniano, serbocroata , checo , eslovaco y esperanto , [31] nueve de los cuales utilizó ampliamente como papa.

En 1939, después de invadir Polonia, las fuerzas de ocupación de la Alemania nazi cerraron la universidad. [20] Se requería que los hombres físicamente aptos trabajaran, por lo que de 1940 a 1944 Wojtyła trabajó como mensajero en un restaurante, trabajador manual en una cantera de piedra caliza y para la fábrica química Solvay , para evitar la deportación a Alemania. [21] [30] En febrero de 1940, conoció a Jan Tyranowski , quien lo introdujo a la espiritualidad carmelita y a los grupos juveniles del " Rosario Viviente ". [32] Ese mismo año tuvo dos accidentes importantes, sufriendo una fractura de cráneo después de ser atropellado por un tranvía y sufriendo heridas que lo dejaron con un hombro más alto que el otro y encorvado permanentemente después de ser atropellado por un camión en una cantera. [33] Su padre, un ex suboficial austrohúngaro y más tarde oficial del ejército polaco , murió de un ataque cardíaco en 1941, [34] dejando al joven Wojtyła huérfano y siendo el único miembro sobreviviente de la familia inmediata. [22] [ 23] [35] Al reflexionar sobre estos momentos de su vida, casi cuarenta años después dijo: "No estuve en la muerte de mi madre, no estuve en la muerte de mi hermano, no estuve en la muerte de mi padre. A los veinte años, ya había perdido a todas las personas que amaba". [35]

Wojtyła (segundo desde la derecha) en una cuadrilla de trabajo forzado de Baudienst durante la ocupación de Polonia (1939-1945) , alrededor de 1941

Tras la muerte de su padre, comenzó a pensar seriamente en el sacerdocio. [36] En octubre de 1942, mientras continuaba la Segunda Guerra Mundial , llamó a la puerta del Palacio Episcopal y pidió estudiar para el sacerdocio. [36] Poco después, comenzó los cursos en el seminario clandestino dirigido por el arzobispo de Cracovia , el futuro cardenal Adam Stefan Sapieha . [37] El 29 de febrero de 1944, Wojtyla fue atropellado por un camión alemán. Oficiales de la Wehrmacht alemana lo atendieron y lo enviaron a un hospital. Pasó dos semanas allí recuperándose de una conmoción cerebral grave y una lesión en el hombro. Le pareció que este accidente y su supervivencia fueron una confirmación de su vocación. El 6 de agosto de 1944, un día conocido como el "Domingo Negro", [38] la Gestapo detuvo a jóvenes en Cracovia para frenar el levantamiento allí , [38] similar al reciente levantamiento en Varsovia . [39] [40] Wojtyła escapó ocultándose en el sótano de la casa de su tío en la calle Tyniecka 10, mientras las tropas alemanas buscaban arriba. [36] [39] [40] Más de ocho mil hombres y niños fueron capturados ese día, mientras Wojtyła escapó a la residencia del arzobispo, [36] [38] [39] donde permaneció hasta que los alemanes se marcharon. [22] [36] [39]

En la noche del 17 de enero de 1945, los alemanes huyeron de la ciudad y los estudiantes recuperaron el seminario en ruinas . Wojtyła y otro seminarista se ofrecieron como voluntarios para la tarea de limpiar los montones de excrementos congelados de los baños. [41] Wojtyła también ayudó a una niña judía refugiada de 14 años llamada Edith Zierer, [42] que había escapado de un campo de trabajo nazi en Częstochowa . [42] Edith se había derrumbado en una plataforma de ferrocarril, por lo que Wojtyła la llevó a un tren y se quedó con ella durante todo el viaje a Cracovia. Más tarde le atribuyó a Wojtyła el haberle salvado la vida ese día. [43] [44] [45] B'nai B'rith y otras autoridades han dicho que Wojtyła ayudó a proteger a muchos otros judíos polacos de los nazis. Durante la ocupación nazi de Polonia , una familia judía envió a su hijo, Stanley Berger, para que lo escondiera una familia polaca gentil . Los padres judíos biológicos de Berger fueron asesinados en el Holocausto y, después de la guerra, los nuevos padres cristianos de Berger pidieron a Karol Wojtyła que bautizara al niño. Wojtyła se negó, diciendo que el niño debería ser criado en la fe judía de sus padres biológicos y su nación, no como católico. [46] Hizo todo lo que pudo para asegurarse de que Berger abandonara Polonia para ser criado por sus parientes judíos en los Estados Unidos. [47] En abril de 2005, poco después de la muerte de Juan Pablo II, el gobierno israelí creó una comisión para honrar el legado de Juan Pablo II. Uno de los honoríficos propuestos por un líder de la comunidad judía de Italia, Emmanuele Pacifici, fue la medalla de los Justos entre las Naciones . [48] ​​En el último libro de Wojtyla, Memoria e identidad , describió los 12 años del régimen nazi como "bestialidad", [49] citando al teólogo y filósofo polaco Konstanty Michalski . [50]

Sacerdocio

Wojtyla en 1958

Después de terminar sus estudios en el seminario de Cracovia, Wojtyła fue ordenado sacerdote el día de Todos los Santos , el 1 de noviembre de 1946, [23] por el arzobispo de Cracovia, el cardenal Adam Stefan Sapieha. [21] [51] [52] Sapieha envió a Wojtyła al Pontificio Ateneo Internacional Angelicum de Roma , la futura Universidad Pontificia de Santo Tomás de Aquino , para estudiar con el fraile dominico francés Reginald Garrigou-Lagrange a partir del 26 de noviembre de 1946. Residió en el Colegio Pontificio belga durante este tiempo, bajo la rectoría de Maximilien de Furstenberg . [53] Wojtyła obtuvo su licencia en julio de 1947, aprobó su examen de doctorado el 14 de junio de 1948 y defendió con éxito su tesis doctoral titulada Doctrina de fide apud S. Ioannem a Cruce (La doctrina de la fe en San Juan de la Cruz ) en filosofía el 19 de junio de 1948. [54] El Angelicum conserva la copia original de la tesis mecanografiada de Wojtyła. [55] Entre otros cursos en el Angelicum , Wojtyła estudió hebreo con el dominico holandés Peter G. Duncker, autor del Compendium grammaticae linguae hebraicae biblicae . [56]

El Pontificio Ateneo Internacional Angelicum en Roma, Italia

Según el compañero de estudios de Wojtyla, el futuro cardenal austríaco Alfons Stickler , en 1947 durante su estancia en el Angelicum , Wojtyla visitó al Padre Pío , quien escuchó su confesión y le dijo que un día ascendería al «puesto más alto de la Iglesia». [57] Stickler añadió que Wojtyla creía que la profecía se cumplió cuando se convirtió en cardenal. [58]

Wojtyla regresó a Polonia en el verano de 1948 para su primera misión pastoral en el pueblo de Niegowić , a 24 kilómetros de Cracovia, en la iglesia de la Asunción. Llegó a Niegowić en época de cosecha, donde su primera acción fue arrodillarse y besar la tierra. [59] Repitió este gesto, que adoptó de Juan María Vianney , [59] a lo largo de su papado.

En marzo de 1949, Wojtyła fue trasladado a la parroquia de San Florián en Cracovia. Enseñó ética en la Universidad Jagellónica y posteriormente en la Universidad Católica de Lublin . Mientras enseñaba, reunió a un grupo de unos 20 jóvenes, que comenzaron a llamarse Rodzinka , la "pequeña familia". Se reunían para orar, discutir filosofía y ayudar a los ciegos y enfermos. El grupo finalmente creció hasta aproximadamente 200 participantes, y sus actividades se expandieron para incluir viajes anuales de esquí y kayak . [60]

En 1953, la tesis de habilitación de Wojtyla fue aceptada por la Facultad de Teología de la Universidad Jagellónica. En 1954, obtuvo un Doctorado en Sagrada Teología , [61] escribiendo una disertación titulada "Reevaluación de la posibilidad de fundar una ética católica sobre el sistema ético de Max Scheler " [62] ( en polaco : Ocena możliwości zbudowania etyki chrześcijańskiej przy założeniach systemu Maksa Schelera ). [63] Scheler fue un filósofo alemán que fundó un amplio movimiento filosófico que enfatizaba el estudio de la experiencia consciente. Las autoridades comunistas polacas abolieron la Facultad de Teología de la Universidad Jagellónica, impidiéndole así recibir el título hasta 1957. [52] Wojtyła desarrolló un enfoque teológico, llamado tomismo fenomenológico , que combinaba el tomismo católico tradicional con las ideas del personalismo , un enfoque filosófico derivado de la fenomenología, que era popular entre los intelectuales católicos de Cracovia durante el desarrollo intelectual de Wojtyła. Tradujo El formalismo y la ética de los valores sustantivos de Scheler . [64] En 1961, acuñó el término "personalismo tomista" para describir la filosofía de Aquino. [65]

Wojtyla fotografiado durante un viaje en kayak al campo con un grupo de estudiantes, alrededor de 1960

Durante este período, Wojtyła escribió una serie de artículos en el periódico católico de Cracovia, Tygodnik Powszechny ( Semanario Universal ), que trataban sobre temas eclesiásticos contemporáneos. [66] Se centró en la creación de obras literarias originales durante sus primeros doce años como sacerdote. La guerra, la vida en la República Popular de Polonia y sus responsabilidades pastorales alimentaron su poesía y sus obras de teatro. Wojtyła publicó su obra bajo dos seudónimos, Andrzej Jawień y Stanisław Andrzej Gruda , [30] [66] para distinguir sus escritos literarios de sus escritos religiosos (publicados bajo su propio nombre), y también para que sus obras literarias fueran consideradas por sus propios méritos. [30] [66] En 1960, Wojtyła publicó el influyente libro teológico Amor y responsabilidad , una defensa de las enseñanzas tradicionales de la iglesia sobre el matrimonio desde un nuevo punto de vista filosófico. [30] [67]

Los estudiantes antes mencionados acompañaban regularmente a Wojtyła en sus caminatas, esquí, ciclismo, campamentos y paseos en kayak, acompañados de oraciones, misas al aire libre y discusiones teológicas. En la Polonia de la era estalinista, no se permitía a los sacerdotes viajar con grupos de estudiantes. Wojtyła pidió a sus compañeros más jóvenes que lo llamaran "Wujek" ("tío" en polaco) para evitar que los extraños dedujeran que era sacerdote. El apodo ganó popularidad entre sus seguidores. En 1958, cuando Wojtyła fue nombrado obispo auxiliar de Cracovia, sus conocidos expresaron su preocupación de que esto lo hiciera cambiar. Wojtyła respondió a sus amigos: "Wujek seguirá siendo Wujek", y continuó viviendo una vida sencilla, evitando los lujos que conllevaba su posición como obispo. Este apodo tan querido permaneció con Wojtyła durante toda su vida y continúa siendo utilizado con cariño, particularmente por el pueblo polaco. [68] [69]

Episcopado y cardenalato

Llamado al episcopado

Calle Kanonicza 19 en Cracovia , Polonia, donde Juan Pablo II vivió como sacerdote y obispo (hoy Museo de la Arquidiócesis )

El 4 de julio de 1958, [52] mientras Wojtyła estaba de vacaciones en kayak en la región de los lagos del norte de Polonia, el papa Pío XII lo nombró obispo auxiliar de Cracovia. En consecuencia, fue convocado a Varsovia para reunirse con el primado de Polonia, el cardenal Stefan Wyszyński , quien le informó de su nombramiento. [70] [71] Wojtyła aceptó el nombramiento como obispo auxiliar del arzobispo de Cracovia, Eugeniusz Baziak , y recibió la consagración episcopal (como obispo titular de Ombi ) el 28 de septiembre de 1958, con Baziak como consagrador principal y como co-consagradores el obispo Bolesław Kominek (obispo titular de Sophene ), auxiliar de la archidiócesis católica de Wrocław , y Franciszek Jop, obispo auxiliar de Sandomierz (obispo titular de Daulia ). Kominek se convertiría en cardenal arzobispo de Wrocław y Jop fue más tarde obispo auxiliar de Wrocław y luego obispo de Opole . [52] A la edad de 38 años, Wojtyła se convirtió en el obispo más joven de Polonia.

En 1959, Wojtyła comenzó una tradición anual de decir una misa de medianoche el día de Navidad en un campo abierto en Nowa Huta , la llamada ciudad modelo de trabajadores en las afueras de Cracovia que no tenía un edificio de iglesia. [72] Baziak murió en junio de 1962 y el 16 de julio, Wojtyła fue elegido como Vicario Capitular (administrador temporal) de la Arquidiócesis hasta que se pudiera nombrar un arzobispo . [20] [21]

Participación en el Vaticano II y acontecimientos posteriores

Desde octubre de 1962, Wojtyła participó en el Concilio Vaticano II (1962-1965), [20] [52] donde hizo contribuciones a dos de sus productos más históricos e influyentes, el Decreto sobre la libertad religiosa (en latín, Dignitatis humanae ) y la Constitución pastoral sobre la Iglesia en el mundo moderno ( Gaudium et spes ). [52] Wojtyła y los obispos polacos contribuyeron con un borrador del texto al Concilio para el Gaudium et spes . Según el historiador jesuita John W. O'Malley , el borrador del texto Gaudium et spes que Wojtyła y la delegación polaca enviaron "tuvo cierta influencia en la versión que fue enviada a los padres conciliares ese verano, pero no fue aceptada como texto base". [73] Según John F. Crosby, como Papa, Juan Pablo II utilizó las palabras de Gaudium et spes para introducir más tarde sus propias opiniones sobre la naturaleza de la persona humana en relación con Dios: el hombre es «la única criatura en la tierra que Dios ha querido por sí misma», pero el hombre «puede descubrir plenamente su verdadero yo sólo en una entrega sincera de sí mismo». [74]

Participó también en las asambleas del Sínodo de los Obispos. [20] [21] El 13 de enero de 1964, el Papa Pablo VI lo nombró arzobispo de Cracovia . [75] El 26 de junio de 1967, Pablo VI anunció la promoción de Wojtyła al Colegio Cardenalicio . [52] [75] Wojtyła fue nombrado cardenal sacerdote de la iglesia titular de San Cesareo in Palatio .

En 1967, jugó un papel decisivo en la formulación de la encíclica Humanae vitae , que trataba los mismos temas que prohíben el aborto y el control artificial de la natalidad . [52] [76] [77]

Según un testigo contemporáneo, Wojtyla se opuso a la distribución de una carta en Cracovia en 1970, en la que se afirmaba que el episcopado polaco se estaba preparando para el 50º aniversario de la guerra polaco-soviética . [78]

En 1973, Wojtyła conoció a la filósofa Anna-Teresa Tymieniecka , esposa de Hendrik S. Houthakker , profesor de economía en la Universidad de Stanford y la Universidad de Harvard , y miembro del Consejo de Asesores Económicos del presidente Richard Nixon [79] [80] [81] Tymieniecka colaboró ​​con Wojtyła en varios proyectos, incluida una traducción al inglés del libro de Wojtyła Osoba i czyn ( Persona y acto ). Persona y acto , una de las principales obras literarias de Juan Pablo II, fue escrita inicialmente en polaco. [80] Tymieniecka produjo la versión en inglés. [80] Se cartearon a lo largo de los años y se hicieron buenos amigos. [80] [82] Cuando Wojtyła visitó Nueva Inglaterra en el verano de 1976, Tymieniecka lo hospedó como invitado en su casa familiar. [80] [82] Wojtyla disfrutó de sus vacaciones en Pomfret, Vermont , haciendo kayak y disfrutando del aire libre, como lo había hecho en su amada Polonia. [80] [71]

Durante 1974-1975, Wojtyla sirvió al Papa Pablo VI como consultor del Consejo Pontificio para los Laicos , como secretario de actas del sínodo de 1974 sobre evangelización y participando ampliamente en la redacción original de la exhortación apostólica de 1975 , Evangelii nuntiandi . [83]

Papado

Elección

Primera aparición del Papa Juan Pablo II tras su elección el 16 de octubre de 1978

En agosto de 1978, tras la muerte del Papa Pablo VI, Wojtyla votó en el cónclave papal , que eligió a Juan Pablo I. Juan Pablo I murió después de solo 33 días como Papa, lo que desencadenó otro cónclave . [21] [52] [84]

El segundo cónclave de 1978 comenzó el 14 de octubre, diez días después del funeral. Se dividió entre dos fuertes candidatos al papado : el cardenal Giuseppe Siri , arzobispo conservador de Génova , y el cardenal Giovanni Benelli , arzobispo liberal de Florencia y amigo cercano de Juan Pablo I. [85]

El escudo de armas de Juan Pablo II muestra la cruz mariana con la letra M que significa la Santísima Virgen María , la madre de Jesús.

Los partidarios de Benelli confiaban en que sería elegido, y en las primeras votaciones , Benelli quedó a nueve votos de ganar. [85] Sin embargo, ambos hombres enfrentaron suficiente oposición como para que ninguno de los dos tuviera probabilidades de prevalecer. Giovanni Colombo , el arzobispo de Milán , fue considerado como un candidato de compromiso entre los cardenales electores italianos, pero cuando comenzó a recibir votos, anunció que, si era elegido, se negaría a aceptar el papado. [86] El cardenal Franz König , arzobispo de Viena , sugirió a Wojtyla como otro candidato de compromiso a sus compañeros electores. [85] Wojtyla ganó en la octava votación el tercer día (16 de octubre).

Entre los cardenales que apoyaron a Wojtyla se encontraban partidarios de Giuseppe Siri, Stefan Wyszyński , la mayoría de los cardenales estadounidenses (liderados por John Krol ) y otros cardenales moderados. Aceptó su elección con las palabras: «Con obediencia en la fe a Cristo, mi Señor, y con confianza en la Madre de Cristo y de la Iglesia, a pesar de las grandes dificultades, acepto». [87] [88] El papa, en homenaje a su predecesor inmediato, tomó entonces el nombre real de Juan Pablo II , [52] [85] también en honor de los difuntos papas Pablo VI y Juan XXIII, y el tradicional humo blanco informó a la multitud reunida en la Plaza de San Pedro que se había elegido un papa. Había habido rumores de que el nuevo papa deseaba ser conocido como Papa Estanislao en honor al santo polaco del nombre , pero los cardenales lo convencieron de que no era un nombre romano. [84] Cuando el nuevo pontífice apareció en el balcón, rompió la tradición dirigiéndose a la multitud reunida: [87]

"Queridos hermanos y hermanas, estamos tristes por la muerte de nuestro amado Papa Juan Pablo I, y por eso los cardenales han pedido un nuevo obispo de Roma. Lo han llamado desde una tierra lejana, lejana y, sin embargo, siempre cercana a causa de nuestra comunión en la fe y las tradiciones cristianas. Tenía miedo de aceptar esa responsabilidad, pero lo hago con espíritu de obediencia al Señor y de total fidelidad a María, nuestra Santísima Madre. Les hablo en su... no, en nuestra lengua italiana. Si me equivoco, por favor corríjanme [ sic ] [c] ". [87] [89] [90] [91]

Wojtyla se convirtió en el papa número 264 según la lista cronológica de papas , el primero no italiano en 455 años. [92] Con solo 58 años de edad, fue el papa más joven desde el papa Pío IX en 1846, que tenía 54. [52] Al igual que su predecesor, Juan Pablo II prescindió de la tradicional coronación papal y en su lugar recibió la investidura eclesiástica con una inauguración papal simplificada el 22 de octubre de 1978. Durante su inauguración, cuando los cardenales se arrodillaron ante él para tomar sus votos y besar su anillo, se puso de pie mientras el prelado polaco, el cardenal Stefan Wyszyński, se arrodilló, le impidió besar el anillo y simplemente lo abrazó. [93]

Viajes pastorales

El primer viaje papal de Juan Pablo II a Polonia en junio de 1979

Durante su pontificado, Juan Pablo II realizó viajes a 129 países, [94] recorriendo más de 1.100.000 kilómetros (680.000 mi) en el transcurso de los mismos. Constantemente atrajo grandes multitudes, algunas de las más grandes jamás reunidas en la historia de la humanidad , como la Jornada Mundial de la Juventud de Manila de 1995 , que reunió hasta cuatro millones de personas, la reunión papal más grande de la historia, según el Vaticano. [95] [96] Las primeras visitas oficiales de Juan Pablo II fueron a la República Dominicana y México en enero de 1979. [97] Si bien algunos de sus viajes (como a los Estados Unidos y Tierra Santa ) fueron a lugares previamente visitados por el Papa Pablo VI, Juan Pablo II se convirtió en el primer papa en visitar la Casa Blanca en octubre de 1979, donde fue recibido calurosamente por el presidente Jimmy Carter . Fue el primer papa en visitar varios países en un año, comenzando en 1979 con México [98] e Irlanda . [99] Fue el primer papa reinante en viajar al Reino Unido , en 1982, donde se reunió con la reina Isabel II , la Gobernadora Suprema de la Iglesia de Inglaterra . Mientras estuvo en Gran Bretaña, también visitó la Catedral de Canterbury y se arrodilló en oración con Robert Runcie , el arzobispo de Canterbury , en el lugar donde Thomas Becket había sido asesinado, [100] además de celebrar varias misas al aire libre a gran escala, incluida una en el Estadio de Wembley , a la que asistieron unas 80.000 personas. [101]

Juan Pablo II con el presidente de Italia Sandro Pertini en 1984

Viajó a Haití en 1983, donde habló en criollo a miles de católicos empobrecidos reunidos para saludarlo en el aeropuerto. Su mensaje, "las cosas deben cambiar en Haití", refiriéndose a la disparidad entre ricos y pobres, fue recibido con estruendosos aplausos. [102] En 2000, fue el primer papa moderno en visitar Egipto, [103] donde se reunió con el papa copto , el papa Shenouda III [103] y el patriarca ortodoxo griego de Alejandría . [103] Fue el primer papa católico en visitar y rezar en una mezquita islámica, en Damasco , Siria, en 2001. Visitó la Mezquita Omeya , una antigua iglesia cristiana donde se cree que está enterrado Juan el Bautista , [104] donde pronunció un discurso llamando a los musulmanes, cristianos y judíos a vivir juntos. [104]

El 15 de enero de 1995, durante la X Jornada Mundial de la Juventud, ofreció una misa a una multitud estimada de entre cinco y siete millones de personas en el Parque Luneta , [96] Manila , Filipinas, que fue considerada como la reunión individual más grande en la historia cristiana . [96] En marzo de 2000, mientras visitaba Jerusalén , Juan Pablo II se convirtió en el primer papa en la historia en visitar y orar en el Muro Occidental . [105] [106] En septiembre de 2001, en medio de las preocupaciones posteriores al 11 de septiembre , viajó a Kazajstán, con una audiencia compuesta en gran parte por musulmanes, y a Armenia, para participar en la celebración de los 1.700 años de cristianismo armenio . [107]

En junio de 1979, Juan Pablo II viajó a Polonia, donde lo rodeaban constantemente multitudes en éxtasis. [108] Este primer viaje papal a Polonia elevó el espíritu de la nación y provocó la formación del movimiento Solidaridad en 1980, que más tarde trajo libertad y derechos humanos a su atribulada patria. [76] Los líderes del Partido Obrero Unificado Polaco pretendían utilizar la visita del Papa para mostrar al pueblo que, aunque el Papa era polaco, eso no alteraba su capacidad de gobernar, oprimir y distribuir los bienes de la sociedad. También esperaban que si el Papa acataba las reglas que ellos establecían, el pueblo polaco vería su ejemplo y los seguiría también. Si la visita del Papa inspiraba un motín, los líderes comunistas de Polonia estaban preparados para aplastar el levantamiento y culpar al Papa del sufrimiento. [109]

"El Papa ganó esa batalla trascendiendo la política. Suyo era lo que Joseph Nye llama ' poder blando ', el poder de atracción y repulsión. Empezó con una enorme ventaja y la explotó al máximo: encabezaba la única institución que representaba el polo opuesto del modo de vida comunista que el pueblo polaco odiaba. Era polaco, pero estaba fuera del alcance del régimen. Al identificarse con él, los polacos tendrían la oportunidad de limpiarse de los compromisos que tuvieron que hacer para vivir bajo el régimen. Y así acudieron a él millones. Lo escucharon. Les dijo que fueran buenos, que no se comprometieran, que se mantuvieran unidos, que no tuvieran miedo, y que Dios es la única fuente de bondad, el único estándar de conducta. 'No tengan miedo', dijo. Millones de personas gritaron en respuesta: '¡Queremos a Dios! ¡Queremos a Dios! ¡Queremos a Dios!' El régimen se acobardó. Si el Papa hubiera optado por convertir su poder blando en poder duro, el régimen podría haberse ahogado en sangre. En cambio, el Papa simplemente llevó al pueblo polaco a abandonar a sus gobernantes al afirmar la solidaridad entre ellos. Los comunistas lograron mantenerse como déspotas durante una década más, pero como líderes políticos estaban acabados. En su visita a su Polonia natal en 1979, el Papa Juan Pablo II asestó lo que resultó ser un golpe mortal al régimen comunista, al Imperio Soviético y, en última instancia, al comunismo. [109]

"Cuando el Papa Juan Pablo II besó el suelo en el aeropuerto de Varsovia, inició el proceso por el cual el comunismo en Polonia —y en última instancia en el resto de Europa— llegaría a su fin". [110]

En viajes posteriores a Polonia, dio apoyo tácito a la organización Solidaridad. [76] Estas visitas reforzaron este mensaje y contribuyeron al colapso del comunismo de Europa del Este que tuvo lugar entre 1989 y 1990 con la reintroducción de la democracia en Polonia, y que luego se extendió por Europa del Este (1990-1991) y Europa del Sureste (1990-1992). [90] [94] [108] [111] [112]

Jornadas Mundiales de la Juventud

El Papa Juan Pablo II (derecha) con el arzobispo de Manila, el cardenal Jaime Sin (izquierda), se dirigen a la multitud que asiste a la misa de clausura de la décima Jornada Mundial de la Juventud en el Parque Luneta , 1995

Como una extensión de su exitosa labor con los jóvenes como sacerdote joven, Juan Pablo II fue pionero en las Jornadas Mundiales de la Juventud internacionales . Juan Pablo II presidió nueve de ellas: Roma (1985 y 2000), Buenos Aires (1987), Santiago de Compostela (1989), Częstochowa (1991), Denver (1993), Manila (1995), París (1997) y Toronto (2002). La asistencia total a estos eventos emblemáticos del pontificado fue de decenas de millones. [113]

Años dedicados

Consciente de los ritmos del tiempo y de la importancia de los aniversarios en la vida de la Iglesia católica, Juan Pablo II dirigió nueve "años dedicados" durante los veintiséis años y medio de su pontificado: el Año Santo de la Redención en 1983-84, el Año Mariano en 1987-88, el Año de la Familia en 1993-94, los tres años trinitarios de preparación para el Gran Jubileo de 2000, el Gran Jubileo mismo, el Año del Rosario en 2002-3, y el Año de la Eucaristía , que comenzó el 17 de octubre de 2004 y concluyó seis meses después de la muerte del Papa. [113]

Gran Jubileo del 2000

El Gran Jubileo del año 2000 fue una llamada a la Iglesia a tomar mayor conciencia y abrazar su tarea misionera en la obra de evangelización .

«Desde el comienzo de mi pontificado, he considerado este Año Santo 2000 como una cita importante. He considerado su celebración como una ocasión providencial en la que la Iglesia, treinta y cinco años después del Concilio Ecuménico Vaticano II, examinará hasta qué punto se ha renovado, para poder emprender con renovado impulso su misión evangelizadora» [114] .

Juan Pablo II también hizo una peregrinación a Tierra Santa para el Gran Jubileo de 2000. [115] Durante su visita a Tierra Santa, Juan Pablo II visitó muchos sitios del Rosario , incluidos los siguientes lugares: Betania más allá del Jordán (Al-Maghtas) , en el río Jordán , donde Juan el Bautista bautizó a Jesús; la Plaza del Pesebre y la Iglesia de la Natividad en la ciudad de Belén , el lugar del nacimiento de Jesús; y la Iglesia del Santo Sepulcro en Jerusalén , el lugar del entierro y resurrección de Jesús. [116] [117] [118]

Enseñanzas

Como Papa, Juan Pablo II escribió 14 encíclicas papales y enseñó sobre la sexualidad en lo que se conoce como la " Teología del Cuerpo ". Algunos elementos clave de su estrategia para "reposicionar a la Iglesia Católica" fueron encíclicas como Ecclesia de Eucharistia , Reconciliatio et paenitentia y Redemptoris Mater . En su obra Al comienzo del nuevo milenio ( Novo Millennio Ineunte ), enfatizó la importancia de "comenzar de nuevo desde Cristo": "No, no seremos salvados por una fórmula sino por una Persona". En El esplendor de la verdad ( Veritatis Splendor ), enfatizó la dependencia del hombre de Dios y su Ley ("Sin el Creador, la criatura desaparece") y la "dependencia de la libertad de la verdad". Advirtió que el hombre "entregándose al relativismo y al escepticismo, se lanza en busca de una libertad ilusoria al margen de la verdad misma". En Fides et Ratio ( Sobre la relación entre fe y razón ), Juan Pablo II promovió un renovado interés por la filosofía y una búsqueda autónoma de la verdad en materia teológica. Basándose en muchas fuentes diferentes (como el tomismo), describió la relación de apoyo mutuo entre fe y razón , y enfatizó que los teólogos deberían centrarse en esa relación. Juan Pablo II escribió extensamente sobre los trabajadores y la doctrina social de la Iglesia, que discutió en tres encíclicas: Laborem exercens , Sollicitudo rei socialis y Centesimus annus . A través de sus encíclicas y muchas cartas apostólicas y exhortaciones, Juan Pablo II habló sobre la dignidad y la igualdad de las mujeres. [119] Argumentó sobre la importancia de la familia para el futuro de la humanidad. [76]

Otras encíclicas incluyen El Evangelio de la Vida ( Evangelium Vitae ) y Ut unum sint ( Que sean uno ). Aunque los críticos lo acusaron de inflexibilidad al reafirmar explícitamente las enseñanzas morales católicas contra el aborto y la eutanasia que han estado vigentes durante más de mil años, instó a una visión más matizada de la pena capital . [76] En su segunda encíclica Dives in misericordia enfatizó que la misericordia divina es la característica más grande de Dios, necesaria especialmente en los tiempos modernos.

Posturas sociales y políticas

Juan Pablo II era considerado un conservador en cuanto a la doctrina y las cuestiones relacionadas con la reproducción sexual humana y la ordenación de mujeres. [120] Durante su visita a los Estados Unidos en 1977, el año antes de convertirse en Papa, Wojtyla dijo: "Toda vida humana, desde el momento de la concepción y a través de todas las etapas posteriores, es sagrada". [121]

Una serie de 129 conferencias dadas por Juan Pablo II durante sus audiencias de los miércoles en Roma entre septiembre de 1979 y noviembre de 1984 fueron posteriormente compiladas y publicadas como una sola obra titulada Teología del cuerpo , una meditación extendida sobre la sexualidad humana . La extendió a la condena del aborto, la eutanasia y prácticamente todas las penas capitales, [122] llamándolas todas parte de una lucha entre una " cultura de la vida " y una "cultura de la muerte". [123] Hizo campaña por el perdón de la deuda mundial y la justicia social . [76] [120] Acuñó el término " hipoteca social ", que relacionaba que toda propiedad privada tenía una dimensión social, a saber, que "los bienes de esta están originalmente destinados a todos". [124] En 2000, respaldó públicamente la campaña Jubileo 2000 sobre el alivio de la deuda africana liderada por las estrellas de rock irlandesas Bob Geldof y Bono , una vez interrumpiendo famosamente una sesión de grabación de U2 llamando por teléfono al estudio y pidiendo hablar con Bono. [125]

Juan Pablo II, que estuvo presente y ejerció una gran influencia en el Concilio Vaticano II de 1962-65 , afirmó las enseñanzas de ese Concilio e hizo mucho por implementarlas. Sin embargo, sus críticos a menudo deseaban que adoptara lo que se ha llamado una agenda progresista que algunos esperaban que evolucionara como resultado del Concilio. De hecho, el Concilio no abogó por cambios progresistas en estas áreas; por ejemplo, todavía condenaron el aborto como un crimen atroz. Juan Pablo II continuó declarando que la contracepción, el aborto y los actos homosexuales eran gravemente pecaminosos y, junto con Joseph Ratzinger (futuro Papa Benedicto XVI ), inicialmente se opuso a la teología de la liberación .

Tras la exaltación por parte de la Iglesia del acto marital de la relación sexual entre un hombre y una mujer bautizados dentro del matrimonio sacramental como propio y exclusivo del sacramento del matrimonio, Juan Pablo II consideró que, en todos los casos, este acto era profanado por la contracepción, el aborto, el divorcio seguido de un "segundo" matrimonio y por los actos homosexuales. En 1994, Juan Pablo II afirmó la falta de autoridad de la Iglesia para ordenar mujeres al sacerdocio, afirmando que sin dicha autoridad la ordenación no es legítimamente compatible con la fidelidad a Cristo. Esto también se consideró un repudio a los llamamientos a romper con la tradición constante de la Iglesia ordenando mujeres al sacerdocio. [126] Además, Juan Pablo II decidió no poner fin a la disciplina del celibato sacerdotal obligatorio, aunque en un pequeño número de circunstancias inusuales, permitió que ciertos clérigos casados ​​de otras tradiciones cristianas que luego se convirtieron al catolicismo fueran ordenados como sacerdotes católicos.

Apartheid en Sudáfrica

Juan Pablo II fue un opositor declarado del apartheid en Sudáfrica . En 1985, durante una visita a los Países Bajos, pronunció un apasionado discurso condenando el apartheid en la Corte Internacional de Justicia , proclamando que "Ningún sistema de apartheid o desarrollo separado será jamás aceptable como modelo para las relaciones entre pueblos o razas". [127] En septiembre de 1988, Juan Pablo II hizo una peregrinación a diez países del sur de África, incluidos los que limitan con Sudáfrica, mientras evitaba ostentosamente Sudáfrica. Durante su visita a Zimbabwe , Juan Pablo II pidió sanciones económicas contra el gobierno de Sudáfrica. [128] Después de la muerte de Juan Pablo II, tanto Nelson Mandela como el arzobispo Desmond Tutu elogiaron al Papa por defender los derechos humanos y condenar la injusticia económica. [129]

Pena capital

Juan Pablo II fue un abierto opositor a la pena de muerte, aunque los papas anteriores habían aceptado la práctica. En una misa papal en San Luis, Missouri , Estados Unidos, dijo:

«Un signo de esperanza es el creciente reconocimiento de que la dignidad de la vida humana nunca debe ser arrebatada, ni siquiera en el caso de quien ha cometido un gran mal. La sociedad moderna tiene los medios para protegerse, sin negar definitivamente a los criminales la posibilidad de reformarse. Renuevo el llamamiento que hice recientemente en Navidad para que se llegue a un consenso para poner fin a la pena de muerte, que es a la vez cruel e innecesaria». [130]

Durante esa visita, Juan Pablo II convenció al entonces gobernador de Misuri, Mel Carnahan , para que redujera la pena de muerte del asesino convicto Darrell J. Mease a cadena perpetua sin libertad condicional. [131] Otros intentos de Juan Pablo II para reducir la pena de los condenados a muerte no tuvieron éxito. En 1983, Juan Pablo II visitó Guatemala y pidió sin éxito al presidente del país, Efraín Ríos Montt , que redujera la pena de seis guerrilleros de izquierda condenados a muerte. [132]

En 2002, Juan Pablo II viajó nuevamente a Guatemala. En ese momento, Guatemala era uno de los dos únicos países de América Latina (el otro era Cuba) que aplicaba la pena capital. Juan Pablo II pidió al presidente guatemalteco, Alfonso Portillo , una moratoria de las ejecuciones. [133]

Medio ambiente y ecología

El Papa Juan Pablo II en la cima del monte Adamello en los Alpes Adamello-Presanella

Juan Pablo II enseñó sobre la salud ambiental de la Tierra que «la humanidad ha defraudado las expectativas de Dios... degradando ese 'jardín de flores' que es la tierra, nuestra morada». [134] Su frase y exhortación, «conversión ecológica», que se utilizó en una audiencia general en el Vaticano en 2001, [134] ha sido ampliamente adoptada, por ejemplo, en el Mandato para el cuidado católico de la Tierra en Australia , [135] y en los escritos del Papa Francisco. [136]

unión Europea

Juan Pablo II presionó para que se incluyera una referencia a las raíces culturales cristianas de Europa en el borrador de la Constitución Europea . En su exhortación apostólica de 2003 Ecclesia in Europa , Juan Pablo II escribió que "respetaba plenamente la naturaleza secular de las instituciones (europeas)". Sin embargo, quería que la constitución consagrara los derechos religiosos, incluido el reconocimiento de los derechos de los grupos religiosos a organizarse libremente, reconociera la identidad específica de cada denominación y permitiera un "diálogo estructurado" entre cada comunidad religiosa y la Unión Europea (UE), y extendiera a toda la UE el estatus legal del que disfrutan las instituciones religiosas en los estados miembros individuales. Juan Pablo II dijo: "Deseo una vez más apelar a quienes redactan el futuro Tratado Constitucional Europeo para que incluya una referencia a la religión y, en particular, a la herencia cristiana de Europa". El deseo del Papa de que se incluyera una referencia a la identidad cristiana de Europa en la Constitución de la UE fue apoyado por representantes no católicos de la Iglesia de Inglaterra y de las Iglesias Ortodoxas Orientales de Rusia, Rumania y Grecia. [137] La ​​exigencia de Juan Pablo II de incluir una referencia a las raíces cristianas de Europa en la Constitución Europea fue apoyada por algunos no cristianos, como Joseph Weiler , un judío ortodoxo practicante y reconocido abogado constitucionalista, quien dijo que la falta de una referencia al cristianismo en la Constitución de la UE no era una "demostración de neutralidad" sino más bien "una actitud jacobina ". [138]

Al mismo tiempo, Juan Pablo II fue un entusiasta partidario de la integración europea ; en particular, apoyó la entrada de su Polonia natal en el bloque. El 19 de mayo de 2003, tres semanas antes de que se celebrara en Polonia un referéndum sobre la pertenencia a la UE , el Papa polaco se dirigió a sus compatriotas y los instó a votar por la pertenencia de Polonia a la UE en la Plaza de San Pedro del Estado de la Ciudad del Vaticano. Mientras algunos políticos católicos conservadores de Polonia se oponían a la pertenencia a la UE, Juan Pablo II dijo:

"Sé que hay muchos que se oponen a la integración. Aprecio su preocupación por mantener la identidad cultural y religiosa de nuestra nación. Sin embargo, debo subrayar que Polonia siempre ha sido una parte importante de Europa. Europa necesita a Polonia. La Iglesia en Europa necesita el testimonio de fe de los polacos. Polonia necesita a Europa." [139]

El Papa polaco comparó la entrada de Polonia en la UE con la Unión de Lublin , que se firmó en 1569 y unió el Reino de Polonia y el Gran Ducado de Lituania en una sola nación y creó una monarquía electiva. [140]

Evolución

El 22 de octubre de 1996, en un discurso pronunciado en la sesión plenaria de la Pontificia Academia de las Ciencias en el Vaticano, Juan Pablo II dijo acerca de la evolución que «esta teoría ha sido aceptada progresivamente por los investigadores, a raíz de una serie de descubrimientos en varios campos del conocimiento. La convergencia, ni buscada ni inventada, de los resultados de trabajos realizados independientemente es en sí misma un argumento significativo a favor de esta teoría». La aceptación de la evolución por parte de Juan Pablo II fue elogiada con entusiasmo por el paleontólogo y biólogo evolucionista estadounidense Stephen Jay Gould [141] , con quien tuvo una audiencia en 1984. [142]

Aunque en general aceptaba la teoría de la evolución, Juan Pablo II hizo una excepción importante: el alma humana , diciendo: "Si el cuerpo humano tiene su origen en materia viva que lo preexistía, el alma espiritual es creada inmediatamente por Dios". [143] [144] [145]

Guerra de Irak

En 2003, Juan Pablo II criticó la invasión de Irak liderada por Estados Unidos en 2003 , diciendo en su discurso sobre el Estado del Mundo: "¡No a la guerra! La guerra no siempre es inevitable. Siempre es una derrota para la humanidad". [146] Envió al cardenal Pio Laghi , ex Pro-Nuncio Apostólico en los Estados Unidos , para hablar con George W. Bush , el presidente estadounidense, para expresar su oposición a la guerra. Juan Pablo II dijo que dependía de las Naciones Unidas resolver el conflicto internacional a través de la diplomacia y que una agresión unilateral es un crimen contra la paz y una violación del derecho internacional . La oposición del Papa a la guerra de Irak lo llevó a ser candidato a ganar el Premio Nobel de la Paz de 2003 , que finalmente fue otorgado a la abogada/jueza iraní y destacada defensora de los derechos humanos Shirin Ebadi . [147] [148]

Teología de la liberación

En 1984 y 1986, a través del cardenal Ratzinger (futuro Papa Benedicto XVI ) como Prefecto de la Congregación para la Doctrina de la Fe , Juan Pablo II condenó oficialmente aspectos de la teología de la liberación , que tenía muchos seguidores en América Latina. [149]

Durante su visita a Europa, el arzobispo salvadoreño Óscar Romero abogó sin éxito por que el Vaticano condenara al régimen militar de derecha de El Salvador , por las violaciones de los derechos humanos durante la guerra civil salvadoreña y el apoyo a los escuadrones de la muerte . Aunque Romero expresó su frustración por trabajar con clérigos que cooperaban con el gobierno, Juan Pablo II lo alentó a mantener la unidad episcopal como una prioridad máxima. [150] [151]

En su viaje a Managua , Nicaragua en 1983, Juan Pablo II condenó duramente lo que denominó la "Iglesia popular", [149] haciendo referencia a las comunidades eclesiales de base apoyadas por la Conferencia Episcopal Latinoamericana , y las tendencias del clero nicaragüense a apoyar a los izquierdistas sandinistas , recordando al clero sus deberes de obediencia a la Santa Sede . [152] [153] [149] Durante esa visita, Ernesto Cardenal , sacerdote y ministro del gobierno sandinista, se arrodilló para besarle la mano. Juan Pablo II la retiró, movió el dedo en la cara de Cardenal y le dijo: "Debes arreglar tu posición con la iglesia". [154]

Sin embargo, en marzo de 1986, el Vaticano publicó una Instrucción sobre el tema en la que, al tiempo que advertía contra la reducción de "la dimensión salvífica de la liberación a la dimensión socio-ética que es una consecuencia de ella", apoyaba " la opción especial por los pobres " defendida por los teólogos de la liberación, y describía las Comunidades Cristianas de Base que ellos habían promovido como "una fuente de gran esperanza para la Iglesia". Unas semanas más tarde, el propio Papa pareció apoyar el movimiento cuando escribió a los obispos brasileños que, mientras esté en armonía con la enseñanza de la Iglesia, "estamos convencidos, nosotros y vosotros, de que la teología de la liberación no sólo es actual sino útil y necesaria. Debe constituir un nuevo estado -en estrecha conexión con los anteriores- de la reflexión teológica". [155]

Crimen organizado

Juan Pablo II fue el primer pontífice que denunció la violencia mafiosa en el sur de Italia . En 1993, durante una peregrinación a Agrigento , Sicilia, hizo un llamamiento a los mafiosos: «Digo a los responsables: “¡Convertíos! ¡Un día llegará el juicio de Dios!”». En 1994, Juan Pablo II visitó Catania y dijo a las víctimas de la violencia mafiosa: «¡Levántate y vístete de luz y de justicia!». [156]

En 1995, la mafia hizo estallar bombas en dos iglesias históricas de Roma. Algunos creyeron que se trataba de una venganza de la mafia contra el Papa por sus denuncias del crimen organizado. [157]

Guerra del Golfo Pérsico

Entre 1990 y 1991, una coalición de 34 naciones liderada por Estados Unidos libró una guerra contra el Iraq de Saddam Hussein , que había invadido y anexado Kuwait . Juan Pablo II fue un firme opositor a la Guerra del Golfo . A lo largo del conflicto, apeló a la comunidad internacional para detener la guerra, y después de que terminó encabezó iniciativas diplomáticas para negociar la paz en Oriente Medio. [158] En su encíclica Centesimus annus de 1991 , Juan Pablo II condenó duramente el conflicto:

«No, nunca más la guerra, que destruye la vida de personas inocentes, enseña a matar, trastorna incluso la vida de quienes matan y deja tras sí una estela de resentimiento y de odio, haciendo así más difícil aún la solución justa de los mismos problemas que la provocaron.» [159]

En abril de 1991, durante su mensaje Urbi et Orbi en la Basílica de San Pedro , Juan Pablo II pidió a la comunidad internacional que “preste atención” a “las aspiraciones de los pueblos oprimidos, ignoradas durante mucho tiempo”. Mencionó específicamente a los kurdos , un pueblo que estaba librando una guerra civil contra las tropas de Saddam Hussein en Irak, como uno de esos pueblos, y se refirió a la guerra como una “oscuridad que amenaza la tierra”. Durante ese tiempo, el Vaticano había expresado su frustración por la ignorancia internacional de los llamados del Papa a la paz en Oriente Medio. [160]

Genocidio de Ruanda

En 1990, durante la guerra civil entre tutsis y hutus en Ruanda, un país mayoritariamente católico, Juan Pablo II pidió un alto el fuego y condenó la persecución de los tutsis. [161] En 1994, fue el primer líder mundial en condenar la masacre de los tutsis como genocidio . En 1995, durante su tercera visita a Kenia ante una audiencia de 300.000 personas, Juan Pablo II abogó por el fin de la violencia en Ruanda y Burundi , instando al perdón y la reconciliación como solución al genocidio. Dijo a los refugiados ruandeses y burundianos que "estaba cerca de ellos y compartía su inmenso dolor". Dijo:

«Lo que está sucediendo en vuestros países es una tragedia terrible que debe terminar. Durante el Sínodo africano, nosotros, los pastores de la Iglesia, sentimos el deber de expresar nuestra consternación y de lanzar un llamamiento al perdón y a la reconciliación. Sólo así se podrán disipar las amenazas del etnocentrismo que se ciernen sobre África estos días y que han afectado tan brutalmente a Ruanda y a Burundi[162]

Perspectivas sobre la sexualidad

Aunque adoptó una posición tradicional sobre la sexualidad humana , manteniendo la oposición moral de la Iglesia Católica a los actos homosexuales, Juan Pablo II afirmó que las personas con inclinaciones homosexuales poseen la misma dignidad y los mismos derechos inherentes que los demás. [163] En su libro Memoria e identidad , se refirió a las "fuertes presiones" del Parlamento Europeo para reconocer las uniones homosexuales como un tipo alternativo de familia, con derecho a adoptar niños. En el libro, citado por Reuters , escribió: "Es legítimo y necesario preguntarse si esto no es quizás parte de una nueva ideología del mal, más sutil y oculta, tal vez, destinada a explotar los mismos derechos humanos contra el hombre y contra la familia". [76] [164]

En 1986, el Papa aprobó la publicación de un documento de la Congregación para la Doctrina de la Fe relativo a la Carta a los Obispos de la Iglesia Católica sobre la atención pastoral a las personas homosexuales . Si bien no dejaba de comentar la homosexualidad y el orden moral, la carta contenía múltiples afirmaciones sobre la dignidad de las personas homosexuales. [165]

Un estudio de 1997 determinó que de todas las declaraciones públicas del Papa, sólo el 3% abordaban el tema de la moralidad sexual. [166]

Reforma del derecho canónico

Juan Pablo II completó una reforma a gran escala del sistema jurídico de la Iglesia Católica, latino y oriental, y una reforma de la Curia Romana.

El 18 de octubre de 1990, al promulgar el Código de Cánones de las Iglesias Orientales , Juan Pablo II afirmó:

Con la publicación de este Código se completa finalmente el ordenamiento canónico de toda la Iglesia, siguiendo... la " Constitución Apostólica sobre la Curia Romana " de 1988, que se añade a ambos Códigos como instrumento primario del Romano Pontífice para "la comunión que une, por así decirlo, a toda la Iglesia" [167].

En 1998, Juan Pablo II emitió el motu proprio Ad tuendam fidem , que modificó dos cánones (750 y 1371) del Código de Derecho Canónico de 1983 y dos cánones (598 y 1436) del Código de Cánones de las Iglesias Orientales de 1990.

1983Código de Derecho Canónico

El 25 de enero de 1983, con la Constitución Apostólica Sacrae disciplinae leges, Juan Pablo II promulgó el código de derecho canónico vigente para todos los miembros de la Iglesia católica pertenecientes a la Iglesia latina . Entró en vigor el primer domingo del siguiente Adviento , [168] es decir, el 27 de noviembre de 1983. [169] Juan Pablo II describió el nuevo código como "el último documento del Vaticano II". [168] Edward N. Peters se ha referido al Código de 1983 como el "Código joanno-paulino" [170] ( Johannes Paulus en latín significa "Juan Pablo"), en paralelo con el código "pio-benedictino" de 1917 al que reemplazó.

Código de Cánones de las Iglesias Orientales

Juan Pablo II promulgó el Código de Cánones de las Iglesias Orientales (CCEO) el 18 de octubre de 1990, mediante el documento Sacri Canones . [171] El CCEO entró en vigor el 1 de octubre de 1991. [172] Es la codificación de las porciones comunes del derecho canónico para las 23 de las 24 iglesias sui iuris de la Iglesia católica que son las Iglesias católicas orientales . Está dividido en 30 títulos y tiene un total de 1540 cánones . [173]

Bono de pastor

Juan Pablo II promulgó la constitución apostólica Pastor bonus el 28 de junio de 1988, que instituyó una serie de reformas en el proceso de funcionamiento de la Curia romana . La Pastor bonus expuso con considerable detalle la organización de la Curia romana, especificando con precisión los nombres y la composición de cada dicasterio y enumerando las competencias de cada uno de ellos . Sustituyó a la anterior ley especial, Regimini Ecclesiæ universæ , promulgada por Pablo VI en 1967. [174]

Catecismo de la Iglesia Católica

El 11 de octubre de 1992, en su constitución apostólica Fidei depositum ( El depósito de la fe ), Juan Pablo II ordenó la publicación del Catecismo de la Iglesia Católica . [175] [176]

Declaró que la publicación era "una norma segura para la enseñanza de la fe... un texto de referencia seguro y auténtico para la enseñanza de la doctrina católica y, en particular, para la preparación de catecismos locales". Su objetivo era "estimular y ayudar en la redacción de nuevos catecismos locales [tanto aplicables como fieles]" en lugar de reemplazarlos.

Dictaduras de América del Sur y el Caribe

Según Joaquín Navarro-Valls , secretario de prensa de Juan Pablo II:

"El solo hecho de la elección de Juan Pablo II en 1978 lo cambió todo. Todo empezó en Polonia , no en Alemania del Este ni en Checoslovaquia . Después se extendió todo. ¿Por qué en 1980 tomaron la iniciativa en Gdansk ? ¿Por qué decidieron ahora o nunca? Sólo porque había un Papa polaco. Estaba en Chile y Pinochet estaba fuera. Estaba en Haití y Duvalier estaba fuera. Estaba en Filipinas y Marcos estaba fuera. En muchas de esas ocasiones, la gente venía aquí al Vaticano agradeciendo al Santo Padre por cambiar las cosas." [177]

Chile

Antes de su peregrinación a América Latina, Juan Pablo II, durante un encuentro con periodistas, calificó de "dictatorial" el régimen de Augusto Pinochet . En palabras de The New York Times , utilizó un "lenguaje inusualmente fuerte" para criticar a Pinochet y afirmó a los periodistas que la Iglesia católica en Chile no sólo debe rezar, sino luchar activamente por la restauración de la democracia en Chile. [178]

Durante su visita a Chile en 1987, Juan Pablo II pidió a los 31 obispos católicos de Chile que hicieran campaña por elecciones libres en el país. [179] Según George Weigel y el cardenal Stanisław Dziwisz , alentó a Pinochet a aceptar una apertura democrática del régimen, e incluso pudo haber pedido su renuncia. [180] Según monseñor Sławomir Oder, postulador de la causa de beatificación de Juan Pablo II , las palabras de Juan Pablo a Pinochet tuvieron un profundo impacto en el dictador chileno. El Papa le confió a un amigo: "Recibí una carta de Pinochet en la que me decía que como católico había escuchado mis palabras, las había aceptado y había decidido comenzar el proceso para cambiar el liderazgo de su país". [181]

Durante su visita a Chile, Juan Pablo II apoyó al Vicariato de la Solidaridad , la organización pro democracia y anti-Pinochet dirigida por la Iglesia. Juan Pablo II visitó las oficinas del Vicariato de la Solidaridad, habló con sus trabajadores y "los llamó a continuar su trabajo, enfatizando que el Evangelio insta constantemente al respeto de los derechos humanos". [182] Mientras estaba en Chile, Juan Pablo II hizo gestos de apoyo público a la oposición democrática anti-Pinochet de Chile. Por ejemplo, abrazó y besó a Carmen Gloria Quintana , una joven estudiante que casi había sido quemada viva por la policía chilena y le dijo que "debemos orar por la paz y la justicia en Chile". [183] ​​Más tarde, se reunió con varios grupos de oposición, incluidos aquellos que habían sido declarados ilegales por el gobierno de Pinochet. La oposición elogió a Juan Pablo II por denunciar a Pinochet como un dictador, ya que muchos miembros de la oposición de Chile fueron perseguidos por declaraciones mucho más suaves. El obispo Carlos Camus , uno de los críticos más duros de la dictadura de Pinochet dentro de la Iglesia chilena, elogió la postura de Juan Pablo II durante la visita papal, diciendo: "Estoy muy conmovido, porque nuestro pastor nos apoya totalmente. Nunca más nadie podrá decir que estamos interfiriendo en política cuando defendemos la dignidad humana". Agregó: "Ningún país que el Papa ha visitado ha permanecido igual después de su partida. La visita del Papa es una misión, un catecismo social extraordinario, y su estadía aquí será un parteaguas en la historia de Chile". [184]

Algunos han acusado erróneamente a Juan Pablo II de afirmar el régimen de Pinochet al aparecer en público con el gobernante chileno. El cardenal Roberto Tucci , organizador de las visitas de Juan Pablo II, reveló que Pinochet engañó al pontífice diciéndole que lo llevaría a su sala de estar, cuando en realidad lo llevó a su balcón. Tucci dice que el pontífice estaba "furioso". [185]

Haití

Juan Pablo II visitó Haití el 9 de marzo de 1983, cuando el país estaba gobernado por Jean-Claude "Baby Doc" Duvalier . Criticó sin rodeos la pobreza del país, dirigiéndose directamente a Baby Doc y a su esposa, Michèle Bennett, ante una gran multitud de haitianos:

«El vuestro es un país hermoso, rico en recursos humanos, pero los cristianos no pueden ignorar la injusticia, la desigualdad excesiva, la degradación de la calidad de vida, la miseria, el hambre, el miedo que sufre la mayoría del pueblo». [186]

Juan Pablo II habló en francés y ocasionalmente en criollo , y en su homilía destacó los derechos humanos básicos de los que carecían la mayoría de los haitianos: "la oportunidad de comer lo suficiente, de recibir cuidados cuando se está enfermo, de encontrar una vivienda, de estudiar, de superar el analfabetismo, de encontrar un trabajo digno y debidamente remunerado; todo lo que proporciona una vida verdaderamente humana a hombres y mujeres, jóvenes y ancianos". Tras la peregrinación de Juan Pablo II, la oposición haitiana a Duvalier reprodujo y citó con frecuencia el mensaje del Papa. Poco antes de abandonar Haití, Juan Pablo II hizo un llamamiento al cambio social en Haití diciendo: "Levantad la cabeza, sed conscientes de vuestra dignidad de hombres creados a imagen de Dios..." [187]

La visita de Juan Pablo II inspiró protestas masivas contra la dictadura de Duvalier. En respuesta a la visita, 860 sacerdotes católicos y trabajadores de la Iglesia firmaron una declaración en la que comprometían a la Iglesia a trabajar en favor de los pobres. [188] En 1986, Duvalier fue depuesto en un levantamiento.

Paraguay

El colapso de la dictadura del general Alfredo Stroessner en Paraguay estuvo vinculado, entre otras cosas, a la visita de Juan Pablo II al país sudamericano en mayo de 1988. [189] Desde que Stroessner tomó el poder mediante un golpe de Estado en 1954 , los obispos de Paraguay criticaron cada vez más al régimen por los abusos de los derechos humanos, las elecciones amañadas y la economía feudal del país. Durante su reunión privada con Stroessner, Juan Pablo II le dijo al dictador:

«La política tiene una dimensión ética fundamental, porque es ante todo un servicio al hombre. La Iglesia puede y debe recordar a los hombres —y en particular a los gobernantes— sus deberes éticos para el bien de toda la sociedad. La Iglesia no puede aislarse en sus templos, como las conciencias de los hombres no pueden aislarse de Dios» [190] .

Más tarde, durante una misa, Juan Pablo II criticó al régimen por empobrecer a los campesinos y a los desempleados, y dijo que el gobierno debía dar a la gente un mayor acceso a la tierra. Aunque Stroessner trató de impedírselo, Juan Pablo II se reunió con los líderes de la oposición en el Estado de partido único. [190]

Papel en la caída del comunismo

El presidente estadounidense Ronald Reagan se reúne con el Papa Juan Pablo II durante una visita a la Ciudad del Vaticano , 1982

Papel como inspiración espiritual y catalizador

A finales de los años 1970, algunos observadores habían predicho la disolución de la Unión Soviética . [191] [192] A Juan Pablo II se le atribuye haber contribuido decisivamente a derribar el comunismo en Europa central y oriental, [76] [90] [94] [111] [112] [193] al ser la inspiración espiritual detrás de su caída y el catalizador de "una revolución pacífica" en Polonia. Lech Wałęsa , el fundador de Solidaridad y el primer presidente postcomunista de Polonia , atribuyó a Juan Pablo II el haber dado a los polacos el coraje para exigir un cambio. [76] Según Wałęsa, "antes de su pontificado, el mundo estaba dividido en bloques. Nadie sabía cómo deshacerse del comunismo. En Varsovia , en 1979, simplemente dijo: 'No tengáis miedo', y más tarde oró: 'Deja que tu Espíritu descienda y cambie la imagen de la tierra... esta tierra'". [193] También se ha denunciado ampliamente que el Banco del Vaticano financió de forma encubierta a Solidaridad. [194] [195]

En 1984, la política exterior de la administración de Ronald Reagan vio abiertas las relaciones diplomáticas con el Vaticano por primera vez desde 1870. En marcado contraste con la larga historia de fuerte oposición interna, esta vez hubo muy poca oposición del Congreso, los tribunales y los grupos protestantes. [196] Las relaciones entre Reagan y Juan Pablo II eran estrechas, especialmente debido a su anticomunismo compartido y su profundo interés en expulsar a los soviéticos de Polonia. [197] La ​​correspondencia de Reagan con el Papa revela "una continua carrera para apuntalar el apoyo del Vaticano a las políticas estadounidenses. Tal vez lo más sorprendente es que los documentos muestran que, incluso en 1984, el Papa no creía que fuera posible cambiar el gobierno comunista polaco". [198]

"Nadie puede probar de manera concluyente que él fue una causa primaria del fin del comunismo. Sin embargo, las figuras principales de todos los bandos –no sólo Lech Wałęsa, el líder polaco de Solidaridad, sino también el archienemigo de Solidaridad, el general Wojciech Jaruzelski ; no sólo el ex presidente estadounidense George Bush padre , sino también el ex presidente soviético Mijail Gorbachov– ahora coinciden en que lo fue. Yo argumentaría el caso histórico en tres pasos: sin el Papa polaco, no habría habido revolución de Solidaridad en Polonia en 1980; sin Solidaridad, no habría habido ningún cambio dramático en la política soviética hacia Europa del Este bajo Gorbachov; sin ese cambio, no habría habido ninguna revolución de terciopelo en 1989." [199]

En diciembre de 1989, Juan Pablo II se reunió con el líder soviético Mijail Gorbachov en el Vaticano y ambos expresaron su respeto y admiración por el otro. Gorbachov dijo una vez: "La caída de la Cortina de Hierro habría sido imposible sin Juan Pablo II". [90] [111] A la muerte de Juan Pablo II, Gorbachov dijo: "La devoción del Papa Juan Pablo II a sus seguidores es un ejemplo notable para todos nosotros". [112] [193]

El 4 de junio de 2004, el presidente estadounidense George W. Bush entregó la Medalla Presidencial de la Libertad , el máximo honor civil de los Estados Unidos, a Juan Pablo II durante una ceremonia en el Palacio Apostólico . El presidente leyó la cita que acompañaba a la medalla, que reconocía a "este hijo de Polonia" cuya "defensa de la paz y la libertad ha inspirado a millones de personas y ha ayudado a derrocar al comunismo y la tiranía". [200] Después de recibir el premio, Juan Pablo II dijo: "Que el deseo de libertad, paz y un mundo más humano simbolizado por esta medalla inspire a hombres y mujeres de buena voluntad en todo tiempo y lugar". [201]

Intento comunista de comprometer a Juan Pablo II

Grafiti que muestra a Juan Pablo II con la frase "No tengáis miedo" en Rijeka , Croacia

En 1983, el gobierno comunista de Polonia intentó sin éxito humillar a Juan Pablo II al afirmar falsamente que había engendrado un hijo ilegítimo. La Sección D de Służba Bezpieczeństwa (SB), el servicio de seguridad, tenía una acción llamada "Triangolo" para llevar a cabo operaciones criminales contra la Iglesia católica en Polonia ; la operación abarcó todas las acciones hostiles polacas contra el papa. [202] [ se necesita una mejor fuente ] El capitán Grzegorz Piotrowski, uno de los asesinos del beatificado Jerzy Popiełuszko , era el líder de la sección D. Drogaron a Irena Kinaszewska, la secretaria de la revista católica semanal con sede en Cracovia Tygodnik Powszechny donde Wojtyła había trabajado, e intentaron sin éxito hacerla admitir que había tenido relaciones sexuales con él. [203]

La SB intentó entonces comprometer al sacerdote de Cracovia Andrzej Bardecki, editor de Tygodnik Powszechny y uno de los amigos más cercanos del cardenal Wojtyla antes de convertirse en Papa, plantando memorias falsas en su vivienda; Piotrowski fue expuesto y las falsificaciones fueron encontradas y destruidas antes de que la SB pudiera decir que las había descubierto. [203]

Relaciones con otras denominaciones cristianas

John Paul II travelled extensively and met with believers from many divergent faiths. At the World Day of Prayer for Peace, held in Assisi on 27 October 1986, more than 120 representatives of different religions and denominations spent a day of fasting and prayer.[204]

Churches of the East

Although the contact between the Holy See and many Christians of the East had never totally ceased, communion had been interrupted since ancient times. Again, the history of conflict in Central Europe was a complex part of John Paul II's personal cultural heritage which made him all the more determined to react so as to attempt to overcome abiding difficulties, given that relatively speaking the Holy See and the non-Catholic Eastern Churches are close in many points of faith.

Eastern Orthodox Church

In May 1999, John Paul II visited Romania on the invitation from Patriarch Teoctist Arăpaşu of the Romanian Orthodox Church. This was the first time a pope had visited a predominantly Eastern Orthodox country since the Great Schism in 1054.[205] On his arrival, the Patriarch and the President of Romania, Emil Constantinescu, greeted the pope.[205] The Patriarch stated, "The second millennium of Christian history began with a painful wounding of the unity of the Church; the end of this millennium has seen a real commitment to restoring Christian unity."[205]

On 23–27 June 2001, John Paul II visited Ukraine, another heavily Orthodox nation, at the invitation of the President of Ukraine and bishops of the Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church.[206] The Pope spoke to leaders of the All-Ukrainian Council of Churches and Religious Organizations, pleading for "open, tolerant and honest dialogue".[206] About 200 thousand people attended the liturgies celebrated by the Pope in Kyiv, and the liturgy in Lviv gathered nearly one and a half million faithful.[206] John Paul II said that an end to the Great Schism was one of his fondest wishes.[206] Healing divisions between the Catholic and Eastern Orthodox Churches regarding Latin and Byzantine traditions was clearly of great personal interest. For many years, John Paul II sought to facilitate dialogue and unity stating as early as 1988 in Euntes in mundum, "Europe has two lungs, it will never breathe easily until it uses both of them."[citation needed]

During his 2001 travels, John Paul II became the first pope to visit Greece in 1291 years.[207][208] In Athens, the pope met with Archbishop Christodoulos of Athens, the head of the Church of Greece.[207] After a private 30-minute meeting, the two spoke publicly. Christodoulos read a list of "13 offences" of the Catholic Church against the Eastern Orthodox Church since the Great Schism,[207] including the sack of Constantinople by the Fourth Crusade in 1204, and bemoaned the lack of apology from the Catholic Church, saying "Until now, there has not been heard a single request for pardon" for the "maniacal crusaders of the 13th century".[207]

The pope responded by saying "For the occasions past and present, when sons and daughters of the Catholic Church have sinned by action or omission against their Orthodox brothers and sisters, may the Lord grant us forgiveness", to which Christodoulos immediately applauded. John Paul II said that the sacking of Constantinople was a source of "profound regret" for Catholics.[207] Later John Paul II and Christodoulos met on a spot where Paul of Tarsus had once preached to Athenian Christians. They issued a common declaration saying, "We shall do everything in our power, so that the Christian roots of Europe and its Christian soul may be preserved.... We condemn all recourse to violence, proselytism and fanaticism, in the name of religion."[207] The two leaders then said the Lord's Prayer together, breaking an Orthodox taboo against praying with Catholics.[207]

The pope had said throughout his pontificate that one of his greatest dreams was to visit Russia,[209] but this never occurred. He attempted to solve the problems that had arisen over centuries between the Catholic and Russian Orthodox churches, and in 2004 gave them a 1730 copy of the lost icon of Our Lady of Kazan.[citation needed]

Armenian Apostolic Church

John Paul II was determined to maintain good relations with the Armenian Apostolic Church, whose separation from the Holy See dated to Christian antiquity. In 1996, he brought the Catholic Church and the Armenian Apostolic Church closer by agreeing with Armenian Archbishop Karekin II on Christ's nature.[210] During an audience in 2000, John Paul II and Karekin II, by then the Catholicos of All Armenians, issued a joint statement condemning the Armenian genocide. Meanwhile, the pope gave Karekin the relics of St. Gregory the Illuminator, the first head of the Armenian Church that had been kept in Naples, Italy, for 500 years.[211] In September 2001, John Paul II went on a three-day pilgrimage to Armenia to take part in an ecumenical celebration with Karekin II in the newly consecrated Saint Gregory the Illuminator Cathedral, Yerevan. The two Church leaders signed a declaration remembering the victims of the Armenian genocide.[212]

Protestantism

Like his successors after him, John Paul II took a large number of initiatives to promote friendly relations, practical humanitarian cooperation and theological dialogue with a range of Protestant bodies. Of these the first in importance had to be with Lutheranism, given that the contention with Martin Luther and his followers was the most significant historical split in Western Christianity.[citation needed]

Lutheranism

From 15 to 19 November 1980, John Paul II visited West Germany[213] on his first trip to a country with a large Lutheran Protestant population. In Mainz, he met with leaders of the Protestant Church in Germany, and with representatives of other Christian denominations.[citation needed]

On 11 December 1983, John Paul II participated in an ecumenical service in the Evangelical Lutheran Church in Rome,[214] the first papal visit ever to a Lutheran church. The visit took place 500 years after the birth of the German Martin Luther, who was first an Augustinian friar and subsequently a leading Protestant Reformer.[citation needed]

In his apostolic pilgrimage to Norway, Iceland, Finland, Denmark and Sweden of June 1989,[215] John Paul II became the first pope to visit countries with Lutheran majorities. In addition to celebrating Mass with Catholic believers, he participated in ecumenical services at places that had been Catholic shrines before the Reformation: Nidaros Cathedral in Norway; near St. Olav's Church at Thingvellir in Iceland; Turku Cathedral in Finland; Roskilde Cathedral in Denmark; and Uppsala Cathedral in Sweden.[citation needed]

On 31 October 1999, (the 482nd anniversary of Reformation Day, Martin Luther's posting of the Ninety-five Theses), representatives of the Catholic Church's Pontifical Council for Promoting Christian Unity and the Lutheran World Federation signed a Joint Declaration on the Doctrine of Justification, as a gesture of unity. The signing was a fruit of a theological dialogue that had been going on between the Lutheran World Federation and the Holy See since 1965.[citation needed]

Anglicanism

John Paul II had good relations with the Church of England, as also with other parts of the Anglican Communion. He was the first reigning pope to travel to the United Kingdom, in 1982, where he met Queen Elizabeth II, the Supreme Governor of the Church of England. He preached in Canterbury Cathedral and received Robert Runcie, the Archbishop of Canterbury. He said that he was disappointed by the Church of England's decision to ordain women and saw it as a step away from unity between the Anglican Communion and the Catholic Church.[216]

In 1980, John Paul II issued a Pastoral Provision allowing married former Episcopal priests to become Catholic priests, and for the acceptance of former Episcopal Church parishes into the Catholic Church. He allowed the creation of a form of the Roman Rite, known informally by some as the Anglican Use, which incorporates selected elements of the Anglican Book of Common Prayer that are compatible with Catholic doctrine. He permitted Archbishop Patrick Flores of San Antonio, Texas, to establish Our Lady of the Atonement Catholic Church, together as the inaugural parish for the use of this hybrid liturgy.[217]

Relations with Judaism

Relations between Catholicism and Judaism improved dramatically during the pontificate of John Paul II.[76][106] He spoke frequently about the Catholic Church's relationship with the Jewish faith.[76] It is likely that his attitude was shaped in part by his own experience of the terrible fate of the Jews in Poland and the rest of Central Europe in the 1930s and 1940s.

In 1979, John Paul II visited the Auschwitz concentration camp in Poland, where many of his compatriots (mostly Jews) had perished during the German occupation there in World War II, the first pope to do so. In 1998, he issued We Remember: A Reflection on the Shoah, which outlined his thinking on the Holocaust.[218] He became the first pope known to have made an official papal visit to a synagogue, when he visited the Great Synagogue of Rome on 13 April 1986.[219][220]

On 30 December 1993, John Paul II established formal diplomatic relations between the Holy See and the State of Israel, acknowledging its centrality in Jewish life and faith.[219]

On 7 April 1994, he hosted the Papal Concert to Commemorate the Holocaust. It was the first-ever Vatican event dedicated to the memory of the six million Jews murdered in World War II. This concert, which was conceived and conducted by US conductor Gilbert Levine, was attended by the Chief Rabbi of Rome Elio Toaff, the President of Italy Oscar Luigi Scalfaro, and survivors of the Holocaust from around the world. The Royal Philharmonic Orchestra, actor Richard Dreyfuss and cellist Lynn Harrell performed on this occasion under Levine's direction.[221][222] On the morning of the concert, the pope received the attending members of survivor community in a special audience in the Apostolic Palace.

In March 2000, John Paul II visited Yad Vashem, the national Holocaust memorial in Israel, and later made history by touching one of the holiest sites in Judaism, the Western Wall in Jerusalem,[106] placing a letter inside it (in which he prayed for forgiveness for the actions against Jews).[105][106][219] In part of his address he said: "I assure the Jewish people the Catholic Church ... is deeply saddened by the hatred, acts of persecution and displays of anti-Semitism directed against the Jews by Christians at any time and in any place." He added that there were "no words strong enough to deplore the terrible tragedy of the Holocaust."[105][106] He added: "We are deeply saddened by the behaviour of those who in the course of history have caused these children of yours to suffer, and asking your forgiveness we wish to commit ourselves to genuine brotherhood with the people of the Covenant."[223] Israeli cabinet minister Rabbi Michael Melchior, who hosted the pope's visit, said he was "very moved" by the pope's gesture.[105][106] He said: "It was beyond history, beyond memory."[105]

In October 2003, the Anti-Defamation League (ADL) issued a statement congratulating John Paul II on entering the 25th year of his papacy. In January 2005, John Paul II became the first pope known to receive a priestly blessing from a rabbi, when Rabbis Benjamin Blech, Barry Dov Schwartz, and Jack Bemporad visited the Pontiff at Clementine Hall in the Apostolic Palace.[224]

Immediately after John Paul II's death, the Anti-Defamation League said in a statement that he had revolutionised Catholic-Jewish relations, saying that "more change for the better took place in his 27-year Papacy than in the nearly 2,000 years before."[225] In another statement issued by the Australia/Israel & Jewish Affairs Council, Director Colin Rubenstein said, "The Pope will be remembered for his inspiring spiritual leadership in the cause of freedom and humanity. He achieved far more in terms of transforming relations with both the Jewish people and the State of Israel than any other figure in the history of the Catholic Church."[219] In April 1986, John Paul II said: "With Judaism, therefore, we have a relationship which we do not have with any other religion. You are our dearly beloved brothers, and in a certain way, it could be said that you are our elder brothers."[226]

In an interview with the Polish Press Agency, Michael Schudrich, chief rabbi of Poland, said that never in history did anyone do as much for Christian-Jewish dialogue as John Paul II, adding that many Jews had a greater respect for the late pope than for some rabbis. Schudrich praised John Paul II for condemning anti-Semitism as a sin, which no previous pope had done.[227]

On John Paul II's beatification, the Chief Rabbi of Rome Riccardo Di Segni said in an interview with the Vatican newspaper L'Osservatore Romano that "John Paul II was revolutionary because he tore down a thousand-year wall of Catholic distrust of the Jewish world." Meanwhile, Elio Toaff, the former Chief Rabbi of Rome, said that:

"Remembrance of the Pope Karol Wojtyła will remain strong in the collective Jewish memory because of his appeals to fraternity and the spirit of tolerance, which excludes all violence. In the stormy history of relations between Roman popes and Jews in the ghetto in which they were closed for over three centuries in humiliating circumstances, John Paul II is a bright figure in his uniqueness. In relations between our two great religions in the new century that was stained with bloody wars and the plague of racism, the heritage of John Paul II remains one of the few spiritual islands guaranteeing survival and human progress."[228]

Relations with other world religions

Animism

In his book-length interview Crossing the Threshold of Hope with the Italian journalist Vittorio Messori published in 1995, John Paul II draws parallels between animism and Christianity. He wrote:

"... it would be helpful to recall ... the animist religions which stress ancestor worship. It seems that those who practise them are particularly close to Christianity, and among them, the Church's missionaries also find it easier to speak a common language. Is there, perhaps, in this veneration of ancestors a kind of preparation for the Christian faith in the Communion of Saints, in which all believers—whether living or dead—form a single community, a single body? ... There is nothing strange, then, that the African and Asian animists would become believers in Christ more easily than followers of the great religions of the Far East."[229]

In 1985, the pope visited the African country of Togo, where 60 per cent of the population espouses animist beliefs. To honour the pope, animist religious leaders met him at a Catholic Marian shrine in the forest, much to the pontiff's delight. John Paul II proceeded to call for the need for religious tolerance, praised nature, and emphasised common elements between animism and Christianity, saying:

"Nature, exuberant and splendid in this area of forests and lakes, impregnates spirits and hearts with its mystery and orients them spontaneously toward the mystery of He who is the author of life. It is this religious sentiment that animates you and one can say that animates all of your compatriots."[230]

During the investiture of President Thomas Boni Yayi of Benin as a titled Yoruba chieftain on 20 December 2008, the reigning Ooni of Ile-Ife, Nigeria, Olubuse II, referred to John Paul II as a previous recipient of the same royal honour.[231]

Buddhism

Tenzin Gyatso, the 14th Dalai Lama, visited John Paul II eight times. The two men held many similar views and understood similar plights, both coming from nations affected by Communism and both serving as heads of major religious bodies.[232][233] As Archbishop of Kraków, long before the 14th Dalai Lama was a world-famous figure, Wojtyła held special Masses to pray for the Tibetan people's non-violent struggle for freedom from Maoist China.[234] In 1987, he welcomed participants of the East-West Spiritual Exchanges, an initiative by the Monastic Interreligious Dialogue (DIMMID) and the Institute for Zen Studies in which Buddhist and Christian monks or nuns take turns residing for one month in each other's monasteries.[235][236] During his 1995 visit to Sri Lanka, a country where a majority of the population adheres to Theravada Buddhism, John Paul II expressed his admiration for Buddhism. He said:

"In particular I express my highest regard for the followers of Buddhism, the majority religion in Sri Lanka, with its ... four great values of … loving kindness, compassion, sympathetic joy and equanimity; with its ten transcendental virtues and the joys of the Sangha expressed so beautifully in the Theragathas. I ardently hope that my visit will serve to strengthen the goodwill between us, and that it will reassure everyone of the Catholic Church's desire for interreligious dialogue and cooperation in building a more just and fraternal world. To everyone I extend the hand of friendship, recalling the splendid words of the Dhammapada: 'Better than a thousand useless words is one single word that gives peace' ... ."[237]

Islam

John Paul II was the first Pope to enter and pray in a mosque, visiting the tomb of John the Baptist at Umayyad Mosque, Damascus.

John Paul II made considerable efforts to improve relations between Catholicism and Islam.[238]

He officially supported the project of the Mosque of Rome and participated in the inauguration in 1995.

On 14 May 1999, at a meeting with Muslim leaders in Syria, he was gifted and then promptly kissed a Qur'an, an act that was controversial with some Catholics.[239][240]

On 6 May 2001, he became the first Catholic pope to enter and pray in a mosque, namely the Umayyad Mosque in Damascus, Syria. Respectfully removing his shoes, he entered the former Byzantine-era Christian church dedicated to John the Baptist, who is also revered as a prophet of Islam. He gave a speech including the statement: "For all the times that Muslims and Christians have offended one another, we need to seek forgiveness from the Almighty and to offer each other forgiveness."[104]

In 2004, John Paul II hosted the "Papal Concert of Reconciliation", which brought together leaders of Islam with leaders of the Jewish community and of the Catholic Church at the Vatican for a concert by the Kraków Philharmonic Choir from Poland, the London Philharmonic Choir from the United Kingdom, the Pittsburgh Symphony Orchestra from the United States, and the Ankara State Polyphonic Choir of Turkey.[241][242][243][244] The event was conceived and conducted by Gilbert Levine, KCSG and was broadcast throughout the world.[241][242][243][244]

John Paul II oversaw the publication of the Catechism of the Catholic Church, which makes a special provision for Muslims; therein, it is written, "together with us they adore the one, merciful God, mankind's judge on the last day."[245]

Jainism

In 1995, John Paul II held a meeting with 21 Jains, organised by the Pontifical Council for Interreligious Dialogue. He praised Mohandas Gandhi for his "unshakeable faith in God", assured the Jains that the Catholic Church will continue to engage in dialogue with their religion and spoke of the common need to aid the poor. The Jain leaders were impressed with the pope's "transparency and simplicity", and the meeting received much attention in the Gujarat state in western India, home to many Jains.[246]

Assassination attempts and plots

John Paul II moments after being shot during an assassination attempt by Mehmet Ali Ağca in St. Peter's Square, 13 May 1981

As he entered St. Peter's Square to address an audience on 13 May 1981,[247] John Paul II was shot and critically wounded by Mehmet Ali Ağca,[20][94][248] an expert Turkish gunman who was a member of the militant fascist group Grey Wolves.[249] The assassin used a Browning 9 mm semi-automatic pistol,[250] shooting the pope in the abdomen and perforating his colon and small intestine multiple times.[90] John Paul II was rushed into the Vatican complex and then to the Gemelli Hospital. On the way to the hospital, he lost consciousness. Even though the two bullets missed his superior mesenteric artery and abdominal aorta, he lost nearly three-quarters of his blood. He underwent five hours of surgery to treat his wounds.[251] Surgeons performed a colostomy, temporarily rerouting the upper part of the large intestine to let the damaged lower part heal.[251] When he briefly regained consciousness before being operated on, he instructed the doctors not to remove his Brown Scapular during the operation.[252] One of the few people allowed in to see him at the Gemelli Clinic was one of his closest friends, philosopher Anna-Teresa Tymieniecka, who arrived on Saturday 16 May and kept him company while he recovered from emergency surgery.[81] The pope later stated that the Blessed Virgin Mary helped keep him alive throughout his ordeal.[94][248][253] He said:

"Could I forget that the event in St. Peter's Square took place on the day and at the hour when the first appearance of the Mother of Christ to the poor little peasants has been remembered for over sixty years at Fátima, Portugal? For in everything that happened to me on that very day, I felt that extraordinary motherly protection and care, which turned out to be stronger than the deadly bullet."[254]

Ağca was caught and restrained by a nun and other bystanders until police arrived. He was sentenced to life imprisonment. Two days after Christmas in 1983, John Paul II visited Ağca in prison. John Paul II and Ağca spoke privately for about twenty minutes.[94][248] John Paul II said, "What we talked about will have to remain a secret between him and me. I spoke to him as a brother whom I have pardoned and who has my complete trust."[255]

Numerous other theories were advanced to explain the assassination attempt, some of them controversial. One such theory, advanced by Michael Ledeen and heavily pushed by the United States Central Intelligence Agency at the time of the assassination but never substantiated by evidence, was that the Soviet Union was behind the attempt on John Paul II's life in retaliation for the pope's support of Solidarity, the Catholic, pro-democratic Polish workers' movement.[249][256] This theory was supported by the 2006 Mitrokhin Commission, set up by Silvio Berlusconi and headed by Forza Italia senator Paolo Guzzanti, which alleged that Communist Bulgarian security departments were utilised to prevent the Soviet Union's role from being uncovered, and concluded that Soviet military intelligence (Glavnoje Razvedyvatel'noje Upravlenije), not the KGB, were responsible.[256] Russian Foreign Intelligence Service spokesman Boris Labusov called the accusation "absurd".[256] The pope declared during a May 2002 visit to Bulgaria that the country's Soviet-bloc-era leadership had nothing to do with the assassination attempt.[249][256] However, his secretary, Cardinal Stanisław Dziwisz, alleged in his book A Life with Karol, that the pope was convinced privately that the former Soviet Union was behind the attack.[257] It was later discovered that many of John Paul II's aides had foreign-government attachments;[258] Bulgaria and Russia disputed the Italian commission's conclusions, pointing out that the pope had publicly denied the Bulgarian connection.[256]

A second assassination attempt was made on 12 May 1982, just a day before the anniversary of the first attempt on his life, in Fátima, Portugal, when a man tried to stab John Paul II with a bayonet.[259][260][261] He was stopped by security guards. Stanisław Dziwisz later said that John Paul II had been injured during the attempt but managed to hide a non-life-threatening wound.[259][260][261] The assailant, a traditionalist Catholic Spanish priest named Juan María Fernández y Krohn,[259] had been ordained as a priest by Archbishop Marcel Lefebvre of the Society of St. Pius X and was opposed to the changes made by the Second Vatican Council, saying that the pope was an agent of Communist Moscow and of the Marxist Eastern Bloc.[262] Fernández y Krohn subsequently left the priesthood and served three years of a six-year sentence.[260][261][262] The ex-priest was treated for mental illness and then expelled from Portugal to become a solicitor in Belgium.[262]

The Al-Qaeda-funded Bojinka plot planned to kill John Paul II during a visit to the Philippines during World Youth Day 1995 celebrations. On 15 January 1995 a suicide bomber was planning to dress as a priest and detonate a bomb when the pope passed in his motorcade on his way to the San Carlos Seminary in Makati. The assassination was supposed to divert attention from the next phase of the operation. However, a chemical fire inadvertently started by the cell alerted police to their whereabouts, and all were arrested a week before the pope's visit, and confessed to the plot.[263]

In 2009 Jack Koehler, a journalist and former army intelligence officer, published Spies in the Vatican: The Soviet Union's Cold War Against the Catholic Church.[264] Mining mostly East German and Polish secret police archives, Koehler claimed the assassination attempts were "KGB-backed".[265]

Apologies

John Paul II apologised to many groups that had suffered at the hands of the Catholic Church through the years.[76][266] Before becoming pope he had been a prominent editor and supporter of initiatives such as the Letter of Reconciliation of the Polish Bishops to the German Bishops from 1965. As pope, he officially made public apologies for over 100 wrongdoings, including:[267][268][269][270]

The Great Jubilee of the year 2000 included a day of Prayer for Forgiveness of the Sins of the Church on 12 March 2000.

On 20 November 2001, from a laptop in the Vatican, John Paul II sent his first e-mail apologising for the Catholic sex abuse cases, the church-backed "Stolen Generations" of Aboriginal children in Australia, and to China for the behaviour of Catholic missionaries in colonial times.[273]

Health

An ailing John Paul II riding in the Popemobile in September 2004 in St. Peter's Square

When he became pope in 1978 at the age of 58, John Paul II was an avid sportsman. He was extremely healthy and active, jogging in the Vatican gardens, weight training, swimming, and hiking in the mountains. He was fond of football. The media contrasted the new pope's athleticism and trim figure to the poor health of John Paul I and Paul VI, the portliness of John XXIII and the constant claims of ailments of Pius XII. The only modern pope with a fitness regimen had been Pope Pius XI (1922–1939), who was an avid mountaineer.[274][275] An Irish Independent article in the 1980s labelled John Paul II the keep-fit pope.

However, after over twenty-six years as pope, two assassination attempts, one of which injured him severely, and a number of cancer scares, John Paul's physical health declined. In 2001 he was diagnosed as suffering from Parkinson's disease.[276] International observers had suspected this for some time, but it was only publicly acknowledged by the Vatican in 2003. Despite difficulty speaking more than a few sentences at a time, trouble hearing, and severe osteoarthrosis, he continued to tour the world although rarely walking in public.

Death and funeral

Final months

John Paul II was hospitalised with breathing problems caused by a bout of influenza on 1 February 2005.[277] He left the hospital on 10 February, but was subsequently hospitalised again with breathing problems two weeks later and underwent a tracheotomy.[278]

Final illness and death

On 31 March 2005, following a urinary tract infection,[279] he developed septic shock, a form of infection with a high fever and low blood pressure, but was not hospitalised. Instead, he was monitored by a team of consultants at his private residence. This was taken as an indication by the pope, and those close to him, that he was nearing death; it would have been in accordance with his wishes to die in the Vatican.[279] Later that day, Vatican sources announced that John Paul II had been given the Anointing of the Sick by his friend and secretary Stanisław Dziwisz. The day before his death, one of his closest personal friends, Anna-Teresa Tymieniecka, visited him at his bedside.[79][280] During the final days of the pope's life, the lights were kept burning through the night where he lay in the Papal apartment on the top floor of the Apostolic Palace. Tens of thousands of people assembled and held vigil in St. Peter's Square and the surrounding streets for two days. Upon hearing of this, the dying pope was said to have stated: "I have searched for you, and now you have come to me, and I thank you."[281]

On Saturday, 2 April 2005, at approximately 15:30 CEST, John Paul II spoke his final words in Polish, "Pozwólcie mi odejść do domu Ojca" ("Allow me to depart to the house of the Father"), to his aides, and fell into a coma about four hours later.[281][282] The Mass of the vigil of the Second Sunday of Easter commemorating the canonisation of Faustina Kowalska on 30 April 2000, had just been celebrated at his bedside, presided over by Dziwisz and two Polish associates. Present at the bedside was Cardinal Lubomyr Husar from Ukraine, who served as a priest with John Paul in Poland, along with Polish nuns of the Congregation of the Sisters, Servants of the Most Sacred Heart of Jesus, who ran the papal household. John Paul II died in his private apartment at 21:37 CEST (19:37 UTC) of heart failure from profound hypotension and complete circulatory collapse from septic shock.[282][283][284] His death was verified when an electrocardiogram that ran for 20 minutes showed a flatline.[285]

He had no close family by the time of his death; his feelings are reflected in his words written in 2000 at the end of his Last Will and Testament.[286] Dziwisz later said he had not burned the pontiff's personal notes despite the request being part of the will.[287]

(l-r) George W. Bush, Laura Bush, George H. W. Bush, Bill Clinton, Condoleezza Rice, and Andrew Card, US dignitaries paying respects to John Paul II on 6 April 2005 at St. Peter's Basilica, Vatican City

Aftermath

The death of the pontiff set in motion rituals and traditions dating back to medieval times. The Rite of Visitation took place from 4 April 2005 to 7 April 2005 at St. Peter's Basilica. John Paul II's testament, published on 7 April 2005,[288] revealed that he contemplated being buried in his native Poland but left the final decision to the College of Cardinals, which in passing, preferred burial beneath St. Peter's Basilica, honouring the pontiff's request to be placed "in bare earth".

The Requiem Mass held on 8 April 2005 was said to have set world records both for attendance and number of heads of state present at a funeral.[271][289][290][291] (See: List of Dignitaries.) It was the single largest gathering of heads of state up to that time, surpassing the funerals of Winston Churchill (1965) and Josip Broz Tito (1980). Four kings, five queens, at least 70 presidents and prime ministers, and more than 14 leaders of other religions attended.[289] An estimated four million mourners gathered in and around Vatican City.[271][290][291][292] Between 250,000 and 300,000 watched the event from within the Vatican's walls.[291] In a historical rarity, Protestant and Eastern Orthodox leaders, as well as representatives and heads from Judaism, Islam, Druze[293] and Buddhism, offered their own memorials and prayers as a way of sympathising with the grief of Catholics.

The Dean of the College of Cardinals, Cardinal Joseph Ratzinger, conducted the ceremony. John Paul II was interred in the grottoes under the basilica, the Tomb of the Popes. He was lowered into a tomb created in the same alcove previously occupied by the remains of John XXIII. The alcove had been empty since John XXIII's remains had been moved into the main body of the basilica after his beatification.

Posthumous recognition

Title "the Great"

Old tomb of John Paul II in the Vatican Grottoes before of beatification

Upon the death of John Paul II, a number of clergy at the Vatican and laymen[90][271][294] began referring to the late pontiff as "John Paul the Great" — in theory only the fourth pope to be so acclaimed.[90][294][295][296] Cardinal Angelo Sodano specifically referred to John Paul as "the Great" in his published written homily for the pope's funeral Mass of Repose.[297][298] The South African Catholic newspaper The Southern Cross has referred to him in print as "John Paul II the Great".[299] Some Catholic educational institutions in the US have additionally changed their names to incorporate "the Great", including John Paul the Great Catholic University and schools called some variant of John Paul the Great High School.

The tomb of John Paul II in the Vatican Chapel of Saint Sebastian within St. Peter's Basilica where it has been since 2011

Scholars of canon law say that there is no official process for declaring a pope "Great"; the title simply establishes itself through popular and continued usage,[271][300][301] as was the case with celebrated secular leaders (for example, Alexander III of Macedon became popularly known as Alexander the Great). The three popes who today commonly are known as "Great" are Leo I, who reigned from 440–461 and persuaded Attila the Hun to withdraw from Rome; Gregory I, 590–604, after whom the Gregorian chant is named; and Pope Nicholas I, 858–867, who consolidated the Catholic Church in the Western world in the Middle Ages.[294]

John Paul's successor, Benedict XVI, did not use the term directly in public speeches, but made oblique references to "the great Pope John Paul II" in his first address from the loggia of St. Peter's Basilica, at the 20th World Youth Day 2005 in Germany when he said in Polish: "As the great Pope John Paul II would say: Keep the flame of faith alive in your lives and your people";[302] and in May 2006 during a visit to Poland where he repeatedly made references to "the great John Paul" and "my great predecessor".[303]

The tomb of the parents of John Paul II at Rakowicki Cemetery in Kraków, Poland

Institutions named after John Paul II

Beatification

1.5 million St. Peter's Square attendees witness the beatification of John Paul II on 1 May 2011 in Vatican City.[310]

Inspired by calls of "Santo Subito!" ("[Make him a] Saint Immediately!") from the crowds gathered during the funeral Mass that he celebrated,[311][312][313][314] Benedict XVI began the beatification process for his predecessor, bypassing the normal restriction that five years must pass after a person's death before beginning the beatification process.[312][313][315][316] In an audience with Pope Benedict XVI, Camillo Ruini, Vicar General of the Diocese of Rome, who was responsible for promoting the cause for canonisation of any person who died within that diocese, cited "exceptional circumstances", which suggested that the waiting period could be waived.[21][271][317] This decision was announced on 13 May 2005, the Feast of Our Lady of Fátima and the 24th anniversary of the assassination attempt on John Paul II at St. Peter's Square.[318]

In early 2006, it was reported that the Vatican was investigating a possible miracle associated with John Paul II. Sister Marie Simon-Pierre, a French nun and member of the Congregation of Little Sisters of Catholic Maternity Wards, confined to her bed by Parkinson's disease,[313][319] was reported to have experienced a "complete and lasting cure after members of her community prayed for the intercession of Pope John Paul II".[194][271][311][313][320][321] As of May 2008, Sister Marie Simon-Pierre, then 46,[311][313] was working again at a maternity hospital run by her religious institute.[316][319][322][323]

"I was sick and now I am cured," she told reporter Gerry Shaw. "I am cured, but it is up to the church to say whether it was a miracle or not."[319][322]

On 28 May 2006, Pope Benedict XVI celebrated Mass before an estimated 900,000 people in John Paul II's native Poland. During his homily, he encouraged prayers for the early canonisation of John Paul II and stated that he hoped canonisation would happen "in the near future".[319][324]

Statue of John Paul II outside the Basilica of Our Lady of Guadalupe, Tepeyac, Mexico City

In January 2007, Cardinal Stanisław Dziwisz announced that the interview phase of the beatification process, in Italy and Poland, was nearing completion.[271][319][325] In February 2007, second class relics of John Paul II—pieces of white papal cassocks he used to wear—were freely distributed with prayer cards for the cause, a typical pious practice after a saintly Catholic's death.[326][327] On 8 March 2007, the Vicariate of Rome announced that the diocesan phase of John Paul's cause for beatification was at an end. Following a ceremony on 2 April 2007—the second anniversary of the Pontiff's death—the cause proceeded to the scrutiny of the committee of lay, clerical, and episcopal members of the Vatican's Congregation for the Causes of Saints, to conduct a separate investigation.[312][319][325] On the fourth anniversary of John Paul II's death, 2 April 2009, Cardinal Dziwisz, told reporters of a presumed miracle that had recently occurred at the former pope's tomb in St. Peter's Basilica.[322][328][329] A nine-year-old Polish boy from Gdańsk, who was suffering from kidney cancer and was completely unable to walk, had been visiting the tomb with his parents. On leaving St. Peter's Basilica, the boy told them, "I want to walk," and began walking normally.[328][329][330] On 16 November 2009, a panel of reviewers at the Congregation for the Causes of Saints voted unanimously that John Paul II had lived a life of heroic virtue.[331][332] On 19 December 2009, Pope Benedict XVI signed the first of two decrees needed for beatification and proclaimed John Paul II "Venerable", asserting that he had lived a heroic, virtuous life.[331][332] The second vote and the second signed decree certifying the authenticity of the first miracle, the curing of Sister Marie Simon-Pierre, a French nun, from Parkinson's disease. Once the second decree is signed, the position (the report on the cause, with documentation about his life and writings and with information on the cause) is complete.[332] He can then be beatified.[331][332] Some speculated that he would be beatified sometime during (or soon after) the month of the 32nd anniversary of his 1978 election, in October 2010. As Monsignor Oder said, this course would have been possible if the second decree were signed in time by Benedict XVI, stating that a posthumous miracle directly attributable to his intercession had occurred, completing the positio.

Candles around monument to John Paul II in Zaspa, Gdańsk, at the time of his death

The Vatican announced on 14 January 2011 that Pope Benedict XVI had confirmed the miracle involving Sister Marie Simon-Pierre and that John Paul II was to be beatified on 1 May, the Feast of Divine Mercy.[333] 1 May is commemorated in former Communist countries, such as Poland, and some Western European countries as May Day, and John Paul II was well known for his contributions to Communism's relatively peaceful demise.[90][111] In March 2011 the Polish mint issued a gold 1,000 Polish złoty coin (equivalent to US$350), with the Pope's image to commemorate his beatification.[334]

On 29 April 2011, John Paul II's coffin was disinterred from the grotto beneath St. Peter's Basilica ahead of his beatification, as tens of thousands of people arrived in Rome for one of the biggest events since his funeral.[335][336] John Paul II's remains, which were not exposed, were placed in front of the Basilica's main altar, where believers could pay their respect before and after the beatification mass in St. Peter's Square on 1 May 2011. On 3 May 2011 his remains were interred in the marble altar in Pier Paolo Cristofari Chapel of St. Sebastian, where Pope Innocent XI was buried. This more prominent location, next to the Chapel of the Pietà, the Chapel of the Blessed Sacrament, and statues of Popes Pius XI and Pius XII was intended to allow more pilgrims to view his memorial. John Paul II's body is located near the bodies of Pope Pius X and Pope John XXIII, whose bodies were reinterred in the Basilica after their own beatifications and together are three of the five popes beatified in the last century. The two popes who were not exhumed and reinterred after becoming a blessed in the last century were Pope Paul VI and Pope John Paul I, who both remain entombed in the papal grottos.[337][338]

In July 2012, a Colombian man, Marco Fidel Rojas, the former mayor of Huila, Colombia, testified that he was "miraculously cured" of Parkinson's disease after a trip to Rome where he met John Paul II and prayed with him. Antonio Schlesinger Piedrahita, a renowned neurologist in Colombia, certified Fidel's healing. The documentation was then sent to the Vatican office for sainthood causes.[339]

In September 2020, Poland unveiled a sculpture of him, designed by Jerzy Kalina [pl] and installed outside the National Museum, Warsaw, holding up a meteorite.[340] In the same month, a relic containing his blood was stolen from the Spoleto Cathedral in Italy.[341]

Canonisation

The canonisation of John Paul II and John XXIII

To be eligible for canonisation (being declared a saint) by the Catholic Church, two miracles must be attributed to a candidate.

The first miracle attributed to John Paul was the above mentioned healing of a man's Parkinson's disease, which was recognised during the beatification process. According to an article on the Catholic News Service (CNS) dated 23 April 2013, a Vatican commission of doctors concluded that a healing had no natural (medical) explanation, which is the first requirement for a claimed miracle to be officially documented.[342][343][344]

The second miracle was deemed to have taken place shortly after the late pope's beatification on 1 May 2011; it was reported to be the healing of Costa Rican woman Floribeth Mora of an otherwise terminal brain aneurysm.[345] A Vatican panel of expert theologians examined the evidence, determined that it was directly attributable to the intercession of John Paul II, and recognised it as miraculous.[343][344] The next stage was for Cardinals who compose the membership of the Congregation for the Causes of Saints to give their opinion to Pope Francis to decide whether to sign and promulgate the decree and set a date for canonisation.[343][344][346]

On 4 July 2013, Pope Francis confirmed his approval of John Paul II's canonisation, formally recognising the second miracle attributed to his intercession. He was canonised together with John XXIII.[15][347] The date of the canonisation was on 27 April 2014, Divine Mercy Sunday.[348][349]

The canonisation Mass for Pope John Paul II and Pope John XXIII, was celebrated by Pope Francis (with Pope Emeritus Benedict XVI), on 27 April 2014 in St. Peter's Square at the Vatican (John Paul II had died on vigil of Divine Mercy Sunday in 2005). About 150 cardinals and 700 bishops concelebrated the Mass, and at least 500,000 people attended the Mass, with an estimated 300,000 others watching from video screens placed around Rome.[350]

The new saint's remains, considered to be holy relics, were exhumed from their place in the basilica's grotto,[351] and a new tomb was established at the altar of St. Sebastian.[352]

Beatification of the Pope's parents

On 10 October 2019, the Archdiocese of Kraków and the Polish Episcopal Conference approved nihil obstat the opening of the beatification cause of the parents of its patron saint John Paul II, Karol Wojtyła Sr. and Emilia Kaczorowska. It gained approval from the Holy See to open the diocesan phase of the cause on 7 May 2020.[353]

Sexual abuse scandals

John Paul II was criticised by representatives of the victims of clergy sexual abuse for failing to respond quickly enough to the Catholic sex abuse crisis.[354] After decades of inaction, the scandal came to a head when Sinéad O'Connor infamously tore up a photo of John Paul II on a 3 October 1992 episode of Saturday Night Live while performing an a capella rendition of Bob Marley's "War".[355]

In response to mounting criticism over the next decade, John Paul II stated in 2002 that "there is no place in the priesthood and religious life for those who would harm the young".[356] The Catholic Church instituted reforms to prevent future abuse by requiring background checks for church employees[357] and, because a significant majority of victims were boys, disallowing ordination of men with "deep-seated homosexual tendencies".[358][359] They now require dioceses faced with an allegation to alert the authorities, conduct an investigation and remove the accused from duty.[357][360] In 2008, the church asserted that the scandal was a very serious problem and estimated that it was "probably caused by 'no more than 1 per cent'", or 5,000, of the over 500,000 Catholic priests worldwide.[361][362]

In April 2002, John Paul II, despite being frail from Parkinson's disease, summoned all the American cardinals to the Vatican to discuss possible solutions to the issue of sexual abuse in the American Church. He asked them to "diligently investigate accusations". John Paul II suggested that American bishops be more open and transparent in dealing with such scandals and emphasised the role of seminary training to prevent sexual deviance among future priests. In what The New York Times called "unusually direct language", John Paul condemned the arrogance of priests that led to the scandals:

"Priests and candidates for the priesthood often live at a level both materially and educationally superior to that of their families and the members of their own age group. It is therefore very easy for them to succumb to the temptation of thinking of themselves as better than others. When this happens, the ideal of priestly service and self-giving dedication can fade, leaving the priest dissatisfied and disheartened."[363]

The pope read a statement intended for the American cardinals, calling the sex abuse "an appalling sin" and said the priesthood had no room for such men.[364]

In 2002, Archbishop Juliusz Paetz, the Catholic Archbishop of Poznań, was accused of molesting seminarians.[365] John Paul II accepted his resignation, and placed sanctions on him, prohibiting Paetz from exercising his ministry as bishop.[366] It was reported that these restrictions were lifted, though Vatican spokesperson Federico Lombardi strenuously denied this saying "his rehabilitation was without foundation".

In 2003, John Paul II reiterated that "there is no place in the priesthood and religious life for those who would harm the young".[356] In April 2003, a three-day conference was held, titled "Abuse of Children and Young People by Catholic Priests and Religious", where eight non-Catholic psychiatric experts were invited to speak to near all Vatican dicasteries' representatives. The panel of experts overwhelmingly opposed implementation of policies of "zero-tolerance" such as was proposed by the United States Conference of Catholic Bishops. One expert called such policies a "case of overkill" since they do not permit flexibility to allow for differences among individual cases.[367]

In 2004, John Paul II recalled Bernard Francis Law to be Archpriest of the Papal Basilica of Santa Maria Maggiore. Law had previously resigned as Archbishop of Boston in 2002 in response to the Catholic Church sexual abuse cases after church documents were revealed that suggested he had covered up sexual abuse committed by priests in his archdiocese.[368] Law resigned from this position in November 2011.[364]

John Paul II was a firm supporter of the Legion of Christ, and in 1998 discontinued investigations into sexual misconduct by its leader Marcial Maciel, who in 2005 resigned his leadership and was later requested by the Vatican to withdraw from his ministry. However, Maciel's trial began in 2004 during the pontificate of John Paul II, but the Pope died before it ended and the conclusions were known.[369] In an interview with L'Osservatore Romano, Pope Francis said: "I am grateful to Pope Benedict, who dared to say this publicly (when more facts began to come to light after Degollado's death in 2008, Pope Benedict XVI in 2010 launched another investigation and on 1 May 2010 announced a declaration about the crimes of the founder of the Legionaries), and to Pope John Paul II, who dared to give the green light to the Legionaries' case".[370]

On 10 November 2020, the Vatican published a report which found that John Paul II learned of allegations of sexual impropriety against former cardinal Theodore McCarrick, who at the time was serving as Archbishop of Newark, through a 1999 letter from Cardinal John O'Connor warning him that appointing McCarrick to be Archbishop of Washington D.C., a position which had recently been opened, would be a mistake. John Paul II ordered an investigation, which stalled when three of the four bishops tasked with investigating claims allegedly brought back "inaccurate or incomplete information". John Paul II planned on not giving McCarrick the appointment anyway, but relented and gave him the appointment after McCarrick wrote a letter of denial. He created McCarrick a cardinal in 2001. McCarrick would eventually be laicized after allegations surfaced that he abused minors.[371][372] George Weigel, a biographer of John Paul II, defended the pope's actions as follows: "Theodore McCarrick fooled a lot of people ... and he deceived John Paul II in a way that is laid out in almost biblical fashion in [the Vatican's] report".[373]

In a 2019 interview with Mexican television, Pope Francis defended John Paul II's legacy on protecting minors against clerical sexual abuse. He said that John Paul II was "often misled", as in the case of Hans Hermann Groër. Francis said that with respect to the case of Marcial Maciel:

"Ratzinger was courageous, and so was John Paul II. ... With respect to John Paul II, we have to understand certain attitudes because he came from a closed world, from behind the Iron Curtain, where communism was still in force. There was a defensive mentality. We have to understand this well, and no one can doubt the saintliness of this great man and his good will. He was great, he was great."[374][375]

On March 6, 2023, an investigative report by the Polish television station TVN24 concluded that "there [is now] no doubt" that John Paul II "knew about sexual abuse of children by priests under his authority and sought to conceal it when he was an archbishop in his native Poland". The Dutch journalist Ekke Overbeek released a book on John Paul II with similar claims the following week. In response to the claims, Pope Francis stated: "You have to put things in the context of the era[...] At that time everything was covered up. [...] It was only when the Boston scandal broke that the church began to look at the problem." The Polish Episcopal Conference stated that "'further archival research' would be needed to arrive at a just evaluation of the decisions and actions" of Wojtyła.[376] Furthermore, other journalists have criticised the report, especially the interpretation of the sources.[17][18] Another point of contention is the use of materials from the communist secret police in the report.[377]

Other criticism and controversy

John Paul II was widely criticised for a variety of his views. He was a target of criticism from progressives for his opposition to the ordination of women and use of contraception,[20][378] and from traditional Catholics for his support for the Second Vatican Council and its reform of the liturgy. John Paul II's response to child sexual abuse within the Catholic Church has also come under heavy censure.

Opus Dei controversies

John Paul II was criticised for his support of the Opus Dei prelature and the 2002 canonisation of its founder, Josemaría Escrivá, whom he called "the saint of ordinary life".[379][380] Other movements and religious organisations of the church went decidedly under his wing Legion of Christ, the Neocatechumenal Way, Schoenstatt, the charismatic movement, etc. And he was accused repeatedly of taking a soft hand with them, especially in the case of Marcial Maciel, founder of the Legionaries of Christ.[381]

In 1984 John Paul II appointed Joaquín Navarro-Valls, a member of Opus Dei, as Director of the Vatican Press Office. An Opus Dei spokesman said that "the influence of Opus Dei in the Vatican has been exaggerated".[382] Of the nearly 200 cardinals in the Catholic Church, only two are known to be members of Opus Dei.[383]

Banco Ambrosiano scandal

John Paul II was alleged to have links with Banco Ambrosiano, an Italian bank that collapsed in 1982.[194] At the centre of the bank's failure was its chairman, Roberto Calvi, and his membership in the illegal Masonic Lodge Propaganda Due (aka P2). The Vatican Bank was Banco Ambrosiano's main shareholder, and the death of John Paul I in 1978 is rumoured to be linked to the Ambrosiano scandal.[195]

Calvi, often referred to as "God's Banker", was also involved with the Vatican Bank, and was close to Bishop Paul Marcinkus, the bank's chairman. Ambrosiano also provided funds for political parties in Italy, and for both the Somoza dictatorship in Nicaragua and its Sandinista opposition. It has been widely alleged that the Vatican Bank provided money for Solidarity in Poland.[194][195]

Calvi used his complex network of overseas banks and companies to move money out of Italy, to inflate share prices, and to arrange massive unsecured loans. In 1978, the Bank of Italy produced a report on Ambrosiano that predicted future disaster.[195] On 5 June 1982, two weeks before the collapse of Banco Ambrosiano, Calvi had written a letter of warning to John Paul II, stating that such a forthcoming event would "provoke a catastrophe of unimaginable proportions in which the Church will suffer the gravest damage".[384] On 18 June 1982 Calvi's body was found hanging from scaffolding beneath Blackfriars Bridge in the financial district of London. Calvi's clothing was stuffed with bricks, and contained cash valued at US$14,000, in three different currencies.[385]

Problems with traditionalists

In addition to all the criticism from those demanding modernisation, some traditionalist Catholics denounced him as well. These issues included demanding a return to the Tridentine Mass,[386] as well as the repudiation of reforms instituted after the Second Vatican Council, such as the use of the vernacular language in the formerly Latin-language Roman Rite, ecumenism, and the principle of religious liberty.[387] In 1988, the controversial traditionalist Archbishop Marcel Lefebvre, founder of the Society of Saint Pius X (1970), was excommunicated under John Paul II because of the unapproved ordination of four bishops, which Cardinal Ratzinger called a "schismatic act".[388]

The World Day of Prayer for Peace,[389] with a meeting in Assisi, Italy, in 1986, in which the pope prayed only with the Christians,[390] was criticised for giving the impression that syncretism and indifferentism were openly embraced by the Papal Magisterium. When a second Day of Prayer for Peace in the World was held in 2002,[391] it was condemned as confusing the laity and compromising to false religions. Likewise criticised was his kissing of the Qur'an in Damascus, Syria, on one of his travels on 6 May 2001.[392][unreliable source?] His call for religious freedom was not always supported; bishops like Antônio de Castro Mayer promoted religious tolerance but at the same time rejected the Vatican II principle of religious liberty as being liberalist and already condemned by Pope Pius IX in his Syllabus errorum (1864) and at the First Vatican Council.[393]

Religion and AIDS

John Paul II continued the tradition of advocating for the culture of life. In solidarity with Pope Paul VI's Humanae vitae, he rejected artificial birth control, even in the use of condoms to prevent the spread of AIDS.[378] Critics have said that large families are caused by lack of contraception and exacerbate Third World poverty and problems, such as street children in South America. John Paul II argued that the proper way to prevent the spread of AIDS was not condoms but rather "correct practice of sexuality, which presupposes chastity and fidelity".[378] The focus of John Paul II's point is that the need for artificial birth control is itself artificial, and that principle of respecting the sacredness of life ought not be rent asunder in order to achieve the good of preventing AIDS.[citation needed]

Social programmes

There was strong criticism of the pope for the controversy surrounding the alleged use of charitable social programmes as a means of converting people in the Third World to Catholicism.[394][395] The pope created an uproar in the Indian subcontinent when he suggested that a great harvest of faith would be witnessed on the subcontinent in the third Christian millennium.[396]

Argentine military regime

John Paul II endorsed Cardinal Pio Laghi, who critics say supported the Dirty War in Argentina and was on friendly terms with the Argentine generals of the military dictatorship, playing regular tennis matches with the Navy's representative in the junta, Admiral Emilio Eduardo Massera.[397][398][399][400]

Ian Paisley

In 1988, when John Paul II was delivering a speech to the European Parliament, Ian Paisley, the leader of the Democratic Unionist Party and Moderator of the General Assembly of the Free Presbyterian Church of Ulster, shouted "I denounce you as the Antichrist!"[401][402] He held up a red banner reading "Pope John Paul II ANTICHRIST". Otto von Habsburg (the last Crown Prince of Austria-Hungary), a Member of the European Parliament (MEP) for Germany, snatched Paisley's banner, tore it up, and along with other MEPs helped eject him from the chamber.[401][403][404][405][406] The pope continued with his address after Paisley had been ejected.[403][407][408]

Međugorje apparitions

A number of quotes about the apparitions of Međugorje, in Bosnia and Herzegovina, have been attributed to John Paul II.[409] In 1998, when a certain German gathered various statements that were supposedly made by the pope and Cardinal Ratzinger, and then forwarded them to the Vatican in the form of a memorandum, Ratzinger responded in writing on 22 July 1998: "The only thing I can say regarding statements on Međugorje ascribed to the Holy Father and myself is that they are [frei erfunden] complete invention".[410] Similar claims were also rebuked by the Vatican's Secretariate of State.[411]

Beatification controversy

Some Catholic theologians disagreed with the call for the beatification of John Paul II. Eleven dissident theologians, including Jesuit professor José María Castillo and Italian theologian Giovanni Franzoni, said that his stance against contraception and the ordination of women as well as the church scandals during his pontificate presented "facts which according to their consciences and convictions should be an obstacle to beatification".[412] Some traditionalist Catholics opposed his beatification and canonisation for his views on liturgy and participation in prayer with enemies of the church, heretics and non-Christians.[413]

After the 2020 report about the handling of the sexual misconduct complaints against Theodore McCarrick, some called for John Paul II's sainthood to be revoked.[414]

Personal life

Anna-Teresa Tymieniecka, maintained a thirty-year friendship with Pope John Paul II.

Wojtyła was a Cracovia football team supporter, and the club retired number 1 in his honour.[415]Having played the game himself as a goalkeeper, John Paul II was a fan of English football team Liverpool F.C., where his compatriot Jerzy Dudek played in the same position.[416]

In 1973, while still the archbishop of Kraków, Wojtyła befriended a Polish-born, later American philosopher, Anna-Teresa Tymieniecka. The thirty-two-year friendship (and occasional academic collaboration) lasted until his death.[79][80][81] She served as his host when he visited New England in 1976, and photos show them together on skiing and camping trips.[81] Letters that he wrote to her were part of a collection of documents sold by Tymieniecka's estate in 2008 to the National Library of Poland.[81] According to the BBC the library had initially kept the letters from public view, partly because of John Paul's path to sainthood, but a library official announced in February 2016 the letters would be made public.[81][417] In February 2016, the BBC documentary program Panorama reported that John Paul II had apparently had a close relationship with the Polish-born philosopher.[81][82] The pair exchanged personal letters over 30 years, and Stourton believes that Tymieniecka had confessed her love for Wojtyła.[79][418] The Vatican described the documentary as "more smoke than fire", and Tymieniecka denied being involved with John Paul II.[419][420]

Writers Carl Bernstein, the veteran investigative journalist of the Watergate scandal, and Vatican expert Marco Politi, were the first journalists to talk to Anna-Teresa Tymieniecka in the 1990s about her importance in John Paul's life. They interviewed her and dedicated 20 pages to her in their 1996 book His Holiness.[79][280][421] Bernstein and Politi even asked her if she had ever developed any romantic relationship with John Paul II, "however one-sided it might have been". She responded, "No, I never fell in love with the cardinal. How could I fall in love with a middle-aged clergyman? Besides, I'm a married woman."[79][280]

See also

People

References

Notes

  1. ^ The luminous mysteries seem to have their origin (although in a slightly different form) in the writings of Saint George Preca
  2. ^ In isolation, Józef is pronounced [ˈjuzɛf].
  3. ^ In his speech, John Paul deliberately chose to mispronounce the Italian word for 'correct'.

Citations

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Sources

Bibliography

Further reading

External links