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Guerra de Vietnam

La guerra de Vietnam fue un conflicto en Vietnam , Laos y Camboya desde el 1 de noviembre de 1955 hasta la caída de Saigón el 30 de abril de 1975. Fue la segunda de las guerras de Indochina y un conflicto importante de la Guerra Fría . Si bien la guerra se libró oficialmente entre Vietnam del Norte y Vietnam del Sur , el norte fue apoyado por la Unión Soviética , China y otros países del Bloque del Este , mientras que el sur fue apoyado por los EE. UU. y aliados anticomunistas . Esto la convirtió en una guerra por poderes entre los EE. UU. y la Unión Soviética. Duró casi 20 años, con la participación militar directa de los EE. UU. que terminó en 1973. El conflicto se extendió a las guerras civiles de Laos y Camboya , que terminaron con los tres países convirtiéndose en comunistas en 1975.

Después de la caída de la Indochina francesa con la Conferencia de Ginebra de 1954 , el país obtuvo la independencia de Francia pero se dividió en dos partes: el Viet Minh tomó el control de Vietnam del Norte, mientras que Estados Unidos asumió el apoyo financiero y militar a Vietnam del Sur. [56] [A 8] El Viet Cong (VC) controlado por los norvietnamitas , un frente común de Vietnam del Sur de militantes izquierdistas, socialistas, comunistas, trabajadores, campesinos e intelectuales, inició una guerra de guerrillas en el sur. El Ejército Popular de Vietnam (PAVN) participó en una guerra más convencional con las fuerzas estadounidenses y del Ejército de la República de Vietnam (ARVN). Vietnam del Norte invadió Laos en 1958, estableciendo la ruta Ho Chi Minh para abastecer y reforzar al VC. [57] : 16  Para 1963, el norte había enviado 40.000 soldados a luchar en el sur. [57] : 16  La participación de Estados Unidos aumentó bajo la presidencia de John F. Kennedy , de 900 asesores militares a fines de 1960 a 16.300 a fines de 1963. [58] [29] : 131 

Tras el incidente del Golfo de Tonkín en 1964, el Congreso de los Estados Unidos aprobó una resolución que dio al presidente Lyndon B. Johnson autoridad para aumentar la presencia militar, sin una declaración de guerra. Johnson ordenó el despliegue de unidades de combate y aumentó drásticamente el personal militar estadounidense a 184.000 a finales de 1965, y a 536.000 a finales de 1968. [58] Las fuerzas estadounidenses y de Vietnam del Sur dependían de la supremacía aérea y una potencia de fuego abrumadora para llevar a cabo operaciones de búsqueda y destrucción . Estados Unidos llevó a cabo una campaña de bombardeo estratégico contra Vietnam del Norte [29] : 371–374  [59] y aumentó sus fuerzas, a pesar del poco progreso. En 1968, Vietnam del Norte lanzó la Ofensiva del Tet ; una derrota táctica, pero una victoria estratégica, ya que hizo que el apoyo interno estadounidense se desvaneciera. [29] : 481  En 1969, Vietnam del Norte declaró el Gobierno Revolucionario Provisional de la República de Vietnam del Sur . El derrocamiento del monarca camboyano en 1970 dio lugar a una invasión del país por parte de la PAVN y, a continuación, a una contrainvasión de los Estados Unidos y el ARVN , lo que intensificó la guerra civil camboyana. Tras la investidura de Richard Nixon en 1969, comenzó una política de " vietnamización ", que vio el conflicto librado por un ARVN ampliado, mientras que las fuerzas estadounidenses se retiraban debido a la oposición interna. Las fuerzas terrestres estadounidenses se habían retirado en su mayoría en 1972, los Acuerdos de Paz de París de 1973 vieron a todas las fuerzas estadounidenses retiradas [60] : 457  y se rompieron casi de inmediato: la lucha continuó durante dos años. Phnom Penh cayó ante los Jemeres Rojos en abril de 1975, mientras que la ofensiva de primavera de 1975 vio la caída de Saigón ante la PAVN, lo que marcó el final de la guerra. Vietnam del Norte y Vietnam del Sur se reunificaron el 2 de julio del año siguiente.

La guerra tuvo un enorme coste humano : se estima que los soldados y civiles vietnamitas muertos oscilan entre 970.000 y 3 millones. Murieron unos 275.000-310.000 camboyanos , entre 20.000 y 62.000 laosianos y 58.220 militares estadounidenses. [A 7] Su final precipitaría la llegada de los refugiados vietnamitas en barco y la mayor crisis de refugiados de Indochina , que vio a millones de personas abandonar Indochina; se estima que 250.000 perecieron en el mar. [61] [62] Estados Unidos destruyó el 20% de la jungla de Vietnam del Sur y entre el 20 y el 50% de los bosques de manglares , rociando más de 20 millones de galones estadounidenses (75 millones de litros) de herbicidas tóxicos; [63] [60] : 144–145  [64] un ejemplo notable de ecocidio . [65] Los Jemeres Rojos llevaron a cabo el genocidio camboyano , mientras que el conflicto entre ellos y el Vietnam unificado se intensificó hasta convertirse en la Guerra camboyano-vietnamita . En respuesta, China invadió Vietnam , con conflictos fronterizos que duraron hasta 1991. Dentro de los EE. UU., la guerra dio lugar al síndrome de Vietnam , una aversión pública a la participación militar estadounidense en el extranjero, [66] que, junto con el escándalo de Watergate , contribuyó a la crisis de confianza que afectó a Estados Unidos durante la década de 1970. [67]

Nombres

Se le han aplicado varios nombres que han cambiado con el tiempo, aunque Guerra de Vietnam es el título más comúnmente usado en inglés . Se le ha llamado Segunda Guerra de Indochina desde que se extendió a Laos y Camboya , [68] Conflicto de Vietnam , [69] [70] y Nam (coloquialmente 'Nam'). En Vietnam se la conoce comúnmente como Kháng chiến chống Mỹ ( lit. ' Guerra de Resistencia contra Estados Unidos ' ). [71] [72] El Gobierno de Vietnam se refiere oficialmente a ella como la Guerra de Resistencia contra Estados Unidos para Salvar la Nación. [73] A veces se la llama Guerra Estadounidense . [74]

Fondo

Vietnam había estado bajo control francés como parte de la Indochina francesa desde mediados del siglo XIX. Bajo el gobierno francés, el nacionalismo vietnamita fue reprimido, por lo que los grupos revolucionarios llevaron a cabo sus actividades en el extranjero, particularmente en Francia y China. Uno de esos nacionalistas, Nguyen Sinh Cung , estableció el Partido Comunista Indochino en 1930, una organización política marxista-leninista que operaba principalmente en Hong Kong y la Unión Soviética . El partido tenía como objetivo derrocar el gobierno francés y establecer un estado comunista independiente en Vietnam. [75]

Ocupación japonesa de Indochina

Bandera del Viet Minh , que más tarde se convirtió en la bandera de Vietnam del Norte , prototipo de la bandera nacional del Vietnam contemporáneo

En septiembre de 1940, Japón invadió la Indochina francesa, tras la capitulación de Francia ante la Alemania nazi . La influencia francesa fue suprimida por los japoneses, y en 1941 Cung, ahora conocido como Ho Chi Minh , regresó a Vietnam para establecer el Viet Minh , un movimiento de resistencia antijaponés que abogaba por la independencia. [75] El Viet Minh recibió ayuda de los Aliados , a saber, Estados Unidos, la Unión Soviética y la República de China . A partir de 1944, la Oficina de Servicios Estratégicos (OSS) de Estados Unidos proporcionó al Viet Minh armas, municiones y entrenamiento para luchar contra las fuerzas de ocupación japonesas y francesas de Vichy . [76] [77] A lo largo de la guerra, la resistencia guerrillera vietnamita contra los japoneses creció drásticamente y, a fines de 1944, el Viet Minh había crecido a más de 500.000 miembros. [78] El presidente estadounidense Franklin D. Roosevelt fue un ferviente partidario de la resistencia vietnamita y propuso que la independencia de Vietnam se otorgara bajo una tutela internacional después de la guerra. [79]

Tras la rendición de Japón en 1945, el Viet Minh lanzó la Revolución de Agosto , derrocando al Imperio de Vietnam respaldado por Japón y confiscando armas a las fuerzas japonesas que se rendían. El 2 de septiembre, Ho Chi Minh proclamó la Declaración de Independencia de la República Democrática de Vietnam (RDV). [80] Sin embargo, el 23 de septiembre, las fuerzas francesas derrocaron a la RDV y restablecieron el gobierno francés. [80] El apoyo estadounidense al Viet Minh terminó rápidamente y las fuerzas de la OSS se marcharon mientras los franceses buscaban reafirmar el control del país .

Primera Guerra de Indochina

Bảo Đại (derecha) como "asesor supremo" del gobierno de la República Democrática de Vietnam dirigido por el presidente Hồ Chí Minh (izquierda), 1 de junio de 1946

Las tensiones entre el Viet Minh y las autoridades francesas habían estallado en una guerra a gran escala en 1946, un conflicto que pronto se entrelazó con la Guerra Fría más amplia . El 12 de marzo de 1947, el presidente estadounidense Harry S. Truman anunció la Doctrina Truman , una política exterior anticomunista que prometía el apoyo estadounidense a las naciones que resistieran "los intentos de subyugación por parte de minorías armadas o por presiones externas". [81] En Indochina, esta doctrina se puso en práctica por primera vez en febrero de 1950, cuando Estados Unidos reconoció al Estado de Vietnam en Saigón respaldado por Francia , dirigido por el ex emperador Bảo Đại, como el gobierno legítimo de Vietnam, después de que los estados comunistas de la Unión Soviética y la República Popular China reconocieran a la República Democrática de Vietnam , liderada por Ho Chi Minh, como el gobierno vietnamita legítimo el mes anterior. [82] : 377–379  [29] : 88  El estallido de la Guerra de Corea en junio convenció a los responsables políticos de Washington de que la guerra en Indochina era otro ejemplo de expansionismo comunista, dirigido por la Unión Soviética. [29] : 33–35 

Los asesores militares de China comenzaron a ayudar al Viet Minh en julio de 1950. [57] : 14  Las armas, la experiencia y los trabajadores chinos transformaron al Viet Minh de una fuerza guerrillera a un ejército regular. [29] : 26  [83] En septiembre de 1950, Estados Unidos reforzó aún más la Doctrina Truman creando un Grupo de Asistencia y Asesoramiento Militar (MAAG) para examinar las solicitudes de ayuda francesas, asesorar sobre la estrategia y entrenar a los soldados vietnamitas. [84] : 18  En 1954, Estados Unidos había gastado mil millones de dólares en apoyo del esfuerzo militar francés, asumiendo el 80% del costo de la guerra. [29] : 35 

Batalla de Dien Bien Phu

Durante la batalla de Dien Bien Phu en 1954, portaaviones estadounidenses navegaron hacia el golfo de Tonkín y Estados Unidos realizó vuelos de reconocimiento. Francia y Estados Unidos discutieron el uso de armas nucleares tácticas , aunque los informes sobre cuán seriamente se consideró esto y por quién son vagos. [85] [29] : 75  Según el entonces vicepresidente Richard Nixon , el Estado Mayor Conjunto elaboró ​​planes para usar armas nucleares para apoyar a los franceses. [85] Nixon, un llamado " halcón ", sugirió que Estados Unidos podría tener que "meter muchachos estadounidenses". [11] : 76  El presidente Dwight D. Eisenhower hizo que la participación estadounidense dependiera del apoyo británico, pero los británicos se opusieron. [11] : 76  Eisenhower, receloso de involucrar a Estados Unidos en una guerra terrestre asiática, decidió no intervenir. [29] : 75–76  A lo largo del conflicto, las estimaciones de inteligencia estadounidenses se mantuvieron escépticas sobre las posibilidades de éxito de Francia. [86]

El 7 de mayo de 1954, la guarnición francesa de Dien Bien Phu se rindió. La derrota marcó el fin de la participación militar francesa en Indochina. En la Conferencia de Ginebra , negociaron un alto el fuego con el Viet Minh y se concedió la independencia a Camboya, Laos y Vietnam. [87] [88]

Periodo de transición

La Conferencia de Ginebra de 1954

En la Conferencia de Ginebra de 1954, Vietnam fue dividido temporalmente en el paralelo 17. Ho Chi Minh deseaba continuar la guerra en el sur, pero fue frenado por los aliados chinos que lo convencieron de que podía ganar el control por medios electorales. [89] [29] : 87–88  Según los Acuerdos de Ginebra, a los civiles se les permitió moverse libremente entre los dos estados provisionales durante un período de 300 días. Se celebrarían elecciones en todo el país en 1956 para establecer un gobierno unificado. [29] : 88–90  Sin embargo, Estados Unidos, representado en la conferencia por el Secretario de Estado John Foster Dulles , se opuso a la resolución; la objeción de Dulles fue apoyada solo por el representante de Bảo Đại. [77] El hermano de John Foster, Allen Dulles , que era director de la Agencia Central de Inteligencia , inició entonces una campaña de guerra psicológica que exageró el sentimiento anticatólico entre el Viet Minh y distribuyó propaganda atribuida al Viet Minh amenazando con un ataque estadounidense a Hanoi con bombas atómicas. [77] [90] [29] : 96–97 

Durante el período de 300 días, hasta un millón de norteños, principalmente católicos minoritarios, se mudaron al sur, temiendo la persecución de los comunistas. [29] : 96  [91] El éxodo fue coordinado por un programa de reubicación de 93 millones de dólares financiado por los EE. UU., que involucró a la Armada francesa y la Séptima Flota de los EE. UU . para transportar refugiados. [92] Los refugiados del norte dieron al posterior régimen de Ngô Đình Diệm un fuerte electorado anticomunista. [93] : 238  Más de 100.000 combatientes del Viet Minh fueron al norte para "reagruparse", esperando regresar al sur en dos años. [60] : 98  El Viet Minh dejó aproximadamente entre 5.000 y 10.000 cuadros en el sur como base para una futura insurgencia. [29] : 104  Los últimos soldados franceses abandonaron Vietnam del Sur en abril de 1956. [29] : 116  y la República Popular China también completó su retirada de Vietnam del Norte. [57] : 14 

Representantes pro-franceses de la Asamblea Nacional del Estado de Vietnam, Saigón, 1955

Entre 1953 y 1956, el gobierno norvietnamita instituyó reformas agrarias, incluyendo la "reducción de rentas" y la "reforma agraria", que resultaron en opresión política. Durante la reforma agraria, los testigos norvietnamitas sugirieron una proporción de una ejecución por cada 160 residentes de la aldea, lo que se extrapola a 100.000 ejecuciones. Debido a que la campaña se desarrolló principalmente en el área del delta del río Rojo, los académicos aceptaron 50.000 ejecuciones. [94] : 143  [95] [96] : 569  [97] Sin embargo, documentos desclasificados de archivos vietnamitas y húngaros indican que las ejecuciones fueron mucho menores, aunque probablemente mayores de 13.500. [98] En 1956, los líderes de Hanoi admitieron "excesos" en la implementación de este programa y devolvieron gran parte de la tierra a los propietarios originales. [29] : 99–100 

Mientras tanto, el sur constituyó el Estado de Vietnam, con Bảo Đại como emperador y Ngô Đình Diệm como primer ministro. Ni los Estados Unidos ni el Estado de Vietnam de Diệm firmaron nada en la Conferencia de Ginebra. La delegación vietnamita no comunista se opuso enérgicamente a cualquier división de Vietnam, pero perdió cuando los franceses aceptaron la propuesta del delegado del Viet Minh Phạm Văn Đồng , [99] : 134  que propuso que Vietnam eventualmente se unificara mediante elecciones bajo la supervisión de "comisiones locales". [99] : 119  Estados Unidos respondió con lo que se conoció como el "Plan Americano", con el apoyo de Vietnam del Sur y el Reino Unido. [99] : 140  Preveía elecciones de unificación bajo la supervisión de la ONU, pero fue rechazado por la delegación soviética. [99] : 140  Estados Unidos dijo: "Con respecto a la declaración hecha por el representante del Estado de Vietnam, Estados Unidos reitera su posición tradicional de que los pueblos tienen derecho a determinar su propio futuro y que no se sumará a ningún acuerdo que lo impida". [99] : 570–571  El presidente estadounidense Eisenhower escribió en 1954:

Nunca he hablado ni me he comunicado con una persona con conocimientos sobre asuntos de Indochina que no esté de acuerdo en que, si se hubieran celebrado elecciones en el momento de los combates, posiblemente el 80% de la población hubiera votado por el comunista Ho Chi Minh como líder en lugar del jefe de Estado Bảo Đại. De hecho, la falta de liderazgo y empuje por parte de Bảo Đại fue un factor que contribuyó a que los vietnamitas sintieran que no tenían nada por lo que luchar. [100]

Ba Cut , comandante del movimiento religioso Hòa Hảo , en el Tribunal Militar de Can Tho, 1956

Según los Papeles del Pentágono , que comentaron la observación de Eisenhower, Diệm habría sido un candidato más popular que Bảo Đại contra Hồ, afirmando que "es casi seguro que para 1956 la proporción que podría haber votado por Ho -en una elección libre contra Diem- habría sido mucho menor al 80%". [101] En 1957, observadores independientes de India, Polonia y Canadá que representaban a la Comisión de Control Internacional (CCI) declararon que las elecciones justas eran imposibles, y la CCI informó que ni Vietnam del Sur ni Vietnam del Norte habían honrado el acuerdo de armisticio. [102]

De abril a junio de 1955, Diệm eliminó la oposición política en el sur lanzando operaciones contra grupos religiosos: los Cao Đài y los Hòa Hảo de Ba Cụt . La campaña también atacó al grupo de crimen organizado Bình Xuyên , que estaba aliado con miembros de la policía secreta del partido comunista y tenía elementos militares. El grupo fue derrotado en abril después de una batalla en Saigón . A medida que aumentaba la oposición generalizada a sus duras tácticas, Diệm buscó cada vez más culpar a los comunistas. [11]

En un referéndum sobre el futuro del Estado de Vietnam en octubre de 1955, Diệm manipuló las elecciones supervisadas por su hermano Ngô Đình Nhu y se le atribuyó el 98% de los votos, incluido el 133% en Saigón. Sus asesores estadounidenses habían recomendado un margen de victoria más "modesto" del "60 al 70 por ciento". Diệm, sin embargo, vio la elección como una prueba de autoridad. [93] : 224  Declaró que Vietnam del Sur sería un estado independiente bajo el nombre de República de Vietnam (ROV), con él como presidente. [29] Del mismo modo, Ho Chi Minh y otros comunistas ganaron al menos el 99% de los votos en las "elecciones" norvietnamitas. [94] : 193–194, 202–203, 215–217 

La teoría del dominó , que sostenía que si un país caía en manos del comunismo, todos los países vecinos lo seguirían, fue propuesta por primera vez por la administración de Eisenhower . [82] : 19  John F. Kennedy , entonces senador , dijo en un discurso ante los Amigos Americanos de Vietnam : "Birmania, Tailandia, India, Japón, Filipinas y obviamente Laos y Camboya están entre aquellos cuya seguridad se vería amenazada si la marea roja del comunismo se desbordara en Vietnam". [103]

Era Diệm, 1954-1963

Regla

El presidente de los Estados Unidos, Dwight D. Eisenhower, y el secretario de Estado, John Foster Dulles, saludan al presidente Ngô Đình Diệm de Vietnam del Sur en Washington, el 8 de mayo de 1957

Diệm era un católico devoto, ferviente anticomunista, nacionalista y socialmente conservador. El historiador Luu Doan Huynh señala que "Diệm representaba un nacionalismo estrecho y extremista acompañado de autocracia y nepotismo ". [82] : 200–201  La mayoría de los vietnamitas eran budistas y estaban alarmados por las acciones de Diệm, como su dedicación del país a la Virgen María .

En el verano de 1955, Diệm lanzó la campaña "Denuncia a los comunistas", durante la cual sospechosos de ser comunistas y otros elementos antigubernamentales fueron arrestados, encarcelados, torturados o ejecutados. Instituyó la pena de muerte en agosto de 1956 contra la actividad considerada comunista. [4] El gobierno norvietnamita afirmó que, en noviembre de 1957, más de 65.000 personas fueron encarceladas y 2.148 asesinadas en el proceso. [104] Según Gabriel Kolko , 40.000 prisioneros políticos habían sido encarcelados a fines de 1958. [60] : 89  En octubre de 1956, Diệm lanzó un programa de reforma agraria que limitaba el tamaño de las granjas de arroz por propietario. 1,8 millones de acres de tierras agrícolas estuvieron disponibles para la compra por personas sin tierra. En 1960, el proceso se había estancado porque muchos de los mayores partidarios de Diem eran grandes terratenientes. [105] : 14–16 

En mayo de 1957, Diệm emprendió una visita de estado de diez días a los EE. UU . El presidente Eisenhower prometió su continuo apoyo y se realizó un desfile en su honor. Pero el secretario de Estado Dulles admitió en privado que Diệm debía recibir apoyo porque no podían encontrar una alternativa mejor. [93] : 230 

La insurgencia en el Sur, 1954-1960

Entre 1954 y 1957, el gobierno de Diệm logró evitar disturbios organizados a gran escala en el campo. En abril de 1957, los insurgentes lanzaron una campaña de asesinatos, conocida como "exterminio de traidores". [106] 17 personas murieron en la masacre de Châu Đốc en un bar en julio, y en septiembre un jefe de distrito fue asesinado con su familia. [4] A principios de 1959, Diệm había llegado a considerar la violencia como una campaña organizada e implementó la Ley 10/59, que hizo que la violencia política se castigara con la muerte y la confiscación de bienes. [107] Había habido división entre los antiguos miembros del Viet Minh, cuyo objetivo principal era celebrar las elecciones prometidas en los Acuerdos de Ginebra, lo que llevó a actividades " salvajes " separadas de los otros comunistas y activistas anti-GVN. Douglas Pike estimó que los insurgentes llevaron a cabo 2.000 secuestros y 1.700 asesinatos de funcionarios gubernamentales, jefes de aldea, trabajadores de hospitales y maestros entre 1957 y 1960. [29] : 106  [4] La violencia entre los insurgentes y las fuerzas gubernamentales aumentó drásticamente de 180 enfrentamientos en enero de 1960 a 545 enfrentamientos en septiembre. [108]

En septiembre de 1960, el COSVN , el cuartel general del sur de Vietnam del Norte, ordenó un levantamiento coordinado en Vietnam del Sur contra el gobierno y un tercio de la población pronto vivió en áreas de control comunista. [29] : 106–107  En diciembre de 1960, Vietnam del Norte creó formalmente el Viet Cong con la intención de unir a todos los insurgentes anti-GVN, incluidos los no comunistas. Se formó en Memot, Camboya , y fue dirigido a través del COSVN. [57] : 55–58  El Viet Cong "puso un gran énfasis en la retirada de los asesores y la influencia estadounidenses, en la reforma agraria y la liberalización del GVN, en el gobierno de coalición y la neutralización de Vietnam". Las identidades de los líderes de la organización a menudo se mantuvieron en secreto. [4]

El apoyo al VC fue impulsado por el resentimiento por la revocación por parte de Diem de las reformas agrarias del Viet Minh en el campo. El Viet Minh había confiscado grandes propiedades privadas, reducido los alquileres y las deudas y arrendado tierras comunales, en su mayoría a los campesinos más pobres. Diem hizo que los terratenientes volvieran al poder, y la gente que había estado cultivando la tierra durante años tuvo que devolverla a los terratenientes y pagar años de alquiler atrasado. Marilyn B. Young escribió que "las divisiones dentro de los pueblos reproducían las que habían existido contra los franceses: un 75% de apoyo al FLN, un 20% tratando de permanecer neutral y un 5% firmemente a favor del gobierno". [109] : 73 

Participación de Vietnam del Norte

En marzo de 1956, el líder comunista del sur Lê Duẩn presentó un plan para revivir la insurgencia titulado "El camino al sur" al Politburó en Hanoi. Sin embargo, como China y los soviéticos se opusieron a la confrontación, su plan fue rechazado. [57] : 58  A pesar de esto, el liderazgo norvietnamita aprobó medidas tentativas para revivir la insurgencia del sur en diciembre de 1956. [3] Las fuerzas comunistas estaban bajo una estructura de mando único establecida en 1958. [110] En mayo de 1958, las fuerzas norvietnamitas tomaron el centro de transporte en Tchepone en el sur de Laos, cerca de la zona desmilitarizada, entre Vietnam del Norte y Vietnam del Sur. [111] : 24 

El Partido Comunista de Vietnam del Norte aprobó una "guerra popular" en el sur en una sesión en enero de 1959, [29] : 119-120  y, en mayo, se estableció el Grupo 559 para mantener y mejorar la ruta Ho Chi Minh , en ese momento una caminata de montaña de seis meses a través de Laos. El 28 de julio, las fuerzas norvietnamitas y Pathet Lao invadieron Laos, luchando contra el Ejército Real Lao a lo largo de la frontera. [112] : 26  Alrededor de 500 de los "reagrupados" de 1954 fueron enviados al sur por la ruta durante su primer año de operación. [113] La primera entrega de armas a través de la ruta se completó en agosto de 1959. [114] En abril de 1960, Vietnam del Norte impuso el reclutamiento militar universal para los hombres. Aproximadamente 40.000 soldados comunistas se infiltraron en el sur entre 1961 y 1963. [57] : 76 

La escalada de Kennedy, 1961-1963

Conferencia de prensa del presidente Kennedy del 23 de marzo de 1961

En las elecciones presidenciales de Estados Unidos de 1960 , el senador John F. Kennedy derrotó al vicepresidente en ejercicio Richard Nixon. Aunque Eisenhower advirtió a Kennedy sobre Laos y Vietnam, Europa y América Latina "parecían más grandes que Asia en su mira". [93] : 264  En junio de 1961, discrepó amargamente con el primer ministro soviético Nikita Khrushchev cuando se reunieron en Viena para discutir cuestiones clave entre Estados Unidos y la Unión Soviética. Solo 16 meses después, la Crisis de los Misiles de Cuba (octubre de 1962) se transmitió por televisión en todo el mundo. Fue lo más cerca que estuvo la Guerra Fría de una guerra nuclear .

La administración Kennedy siguió comprometida con la política exterior de la Guerra Fría heredada de las administraciones de Truman y Eisenhower. En 1961, Estados Unidos tenía 50.000 tropas estacionadas en Corea del Sur, y Kennedy se enfrentó a cuatro situaciones de crisis: el fracaso de la invasión de Bahía de Cochinos que había aprobado en abril, [115] las negociaciones de un acuerdo entre el gobierno pro-occidental de Laos y el movimiento comunista Pathet Lao en mayo, [93] la  construcción del Muro de Berlín en agosto y la Crisis de los Misiles de Cuba en octubre. Kennedy creía que otro fracaso en detener la expansión comunista dañaría irreparablemente la credibilidad de Estados Unidos. Estaba decidido a "trazar una línea en la arena" e impedir una victoria comunista en Vietnam. Le dijo a James Reston del New York Times después de la cumbre de Viena con Khrushchev: "Ahora tenemos un problema para hacer que nuestro poder sea creíble y Vietnam parece el lugar adecuado". [116] [117]

La política de Kennedy hacia Vietnam del Sur suponía que Diệm y sus fuerzas tenían que derrotar a las guerrillas por sí solos. Estaba en contra del despliegue de tropas de combate estadounidenses y observó que "introducir fuerzas estadounidenses en gran número allí hoy, si bien podría tener un impacto militar inicialmente favorable, casi con certeza conduciría a consecuencias políticas adversas y, a largo plazo, militares adversas". [118] Sin embargo, la calidad del ejército de Vietnam del Sur siguió siendo pobre. El liderazgo deficiente, la corrupción y los ascensos políticos debilitaron al ARVN. La frecuencia de los ataques guerrilleros aumentó a medida que la insurgencia ganaba fuerza. Si bien el apoyo de Hanoi al Viet Cong jugó un papel, la incompetencia gubernamental de Vietnam del Sur fue el núcleo de la crisis. [82] : 369 

El presidente Kennedy se reunió con el secretario de Defensa McNamara en junio de 1962

Una de las cuestiones principales que planteó Kennedy fue si los programas espaciales y de misiles soviéticos habían superado a los de Estados Unidos. Aunque Kennedy hizo hincapié en la igualdad de los misiles de largo alcance con los soviéticos, estaba interesado en utilizar fuerzas especiales para la guerra de contrainsurgencia en países del Tercer Mundo amenazados por insurgencias comunistas. Aunque estaban destinadas a utilizarse tras las líneas del frente después de una invasión soviética convencional de Europa, Kennedy creía que las tácticas de guerrilla empleadas por fuerzas especiales, como los Boinas Verdes , serían eficaces en una guerra de "incendios forestales" en Vietnam.

Los asesores de Kennedy, Maxwell Taylor y Walt Rostow, recomendaron que se enviaran tropas estadounidenses a Vietnam del Sur disfrazadas de trabajadores de socorro contra las inundaciones. [119] Kennedy rechazó la idea, pero aumentó la asistencia militar. En abril de 1962, John Kenneth Galbraith advirtió a Kennedy del "peligro de que reemplacemos a los franceses como fuerza colonial en la zona y nos desangremos como lo hicieron los franceses". [120] Eisenhower envió a 900 asesores a Vietnam y, en noviembre de 1963, Kennedy había enviado allí a 16.000 efectivos militares. [29] : 131 

El Programa de Aldeas Estratégicas se inició a fines de 1961. Este programa conjunto de Estados Unidos y Vietnam del Sur intentó reasentar a la población rural en aldeas fortificadas. Se implementó a principios de 1962 e implicó cierta reubicación forzada y segregación de los vietnamitas del sur rurales, en nuevas comunidades donde el campesinado estaría aislado del Viet Cong. Se esperaba que estas nuevas comunidades brindaran seguridad a los campesinos y fortalecieran el vínculo entre ellos y el gobierno central. Sin embargo, en noviembre de 1963 el programa había decaído y terminó en 1964. [11] : 1070  En julio de 1962, 14 naciones, entre ellas China, Vietnam del Sur, la Unión Soviética, Vietnam del Norte y los EE. UU., firmaron un acuerdo en el que prometían respetar la neutralidad de Laos.

Derrocamiento y asesinato de Ngô Đình Diệm

El desempeño inepto del ARVN se ejemplificó con acciones fallidas como la Batalla de Ấp Bắc el 2 de enero de 1963, en la que una banda del Viet Cong ganó una batalla contra una fuerza survietnamita mucho más grande y mejor equipada, muchos de cuyos oficiales parecían reacios incluso a participar en el combate. [121] : 201–206  Los vietnamitas del sur perdieron 83 soldados y 5 helicópteros de guerra estadounidenses, que servían para transportar tropas derribadas por las fuerzas del Vietcong, mientras que el Vietcong perdió solo 18 soldados. Las fuerzas del ARVN estaban dirigidas por el general de mayor confianza de Diệm, Huỳnh Văn Cao . Cao era católico, promovido debido a la religión y la fidelidad en lugar de la habilidad, y su trabajo principal era preservar sus fuerzas para evitar golpes de Estado. Los responsables políticos en Washington comenzaron a concluir que Diệm era incapaz de derrotar a los comunistas e incluso podría llegar a un acuerdo con Ho Chi Minh. Parecía preocupado únicamente por evitar golpes de Estado y se había vuelto paranoico después de los intentos de 1960 y 1962 , que en parte atribuyó al estímulo de Estados Unidos. Como señaló Robert F. Kennedy , "Diệm no hacía ni la más mínima concesión. Era difícil razonar con él  ..." [122] El historiador James Gibson resumió la situación:

Las aldeas estratégicas habían fracasado  ... El régimen de Vietnam del Sur era incapaz de ganarse al campesinado debido a su base de clase entre los terratenientes. De hecho, ya no había un "régimen" en el sentido de una alianza política relativamente estable y una burocracia funcional. En cambio, el gobierno civil y las operaciones militares habían cesado prácticamente. El Frente de Liberación Nacional había hecho grandes progresos y estaba cerca de declarar gobiernos revolucionarios provisionales en amplias zonas. [123]

El descontento con las políticas de Diệm estalló en mayo de 1963, tras el tiroteo en Huế Phật Đản de 9 budistas que protestaban por la prohibición de exhibir la bandera budista en Vesak , el cumpleaños de Buda. Esto resultó en protestas masivas -la crisis budista- contra las políticas discriminatorias que otorgaban privilegios a los católicos sobre la mayoría budista. El hermano mayor de Diệm, Ngô Đình Thục, era el arzobispo de Huế y desdibujó agresivamente la separación entre la Iglesia y el Estado. Las celebraciones del aniversario de Thuc se produjeron poco antes de que el gobierno financiara Vesak, y las banderas del Vaticano se exhibieron de forma destacada. Hubo informes de paramilitares católicos que demolieron pagodas budistas durante todo el gobierno de Diệm. Diệm se negó a hacer concesiones a la mayoría budista o asumir la responsabilidad de las muertes. El 21 de agosto de 1963, las Fuerzas Especiales del ARVN del coronel Lê Quang Tung , leal al hermano menor de Diệm, Ngô Đình Nhu, atacaron pagodas , causando una destrucción generalizada y dejando un saldo de cientos de muertos.

Las fuerzas del ARVN capturan a un Viet Cong

Los funcionarios estadounidenses comenzaron a discutir el cambio de régimen a mediados de 1963. El Departamento de Estado de los Estados Unidos quería alentar un golpe de Estado, mientras que el Pentágono favorecía a Diệm. El principal de los cambios propuestos era la eliminación del hermano menor de Diệm, Nhu, que controlaba la policía secreta y las fuerzas especiales, y era visto como el responsable de la represión budista y el arquitecto del gobierno de la familia Ngô. Esta propuesta fue transmitida a la embajada de Estados Unidos en Saigón en el Cable 243. La CIA se puso en contacto con los generales que planeaban eliminar a Diệm y les dijo que Estados Unidos no se opondría a tal medida ni los castigaría cortando la ayuda. Diệm fue ejecutado, junto con su hermano, el 2 de noviembre de 1963. Cuando Kennedy fue informado, Maxwell Taylor recordó que "salió corriendo de la habitación con una mirada de conmoción y consternación en su rostro". [93] : 326  Kennedy no había previsto el asesinato de Diệm. El embajador estadounidense Henry Cabot Lodge invitó a los golpistas a la embajada y los felicitó. Lodge informó a Kennedy que "las perspectivas ahora son de una guerra más corta". [93] : 327  Kennedy le escribió a Lodge una carta felicitándolo por "un excelente trabajo". [124]

Tras el golpe, se desató el caos. Hanoi aprovechó la situación y aumentó su apoyo a las guerrillas. Vietnam del Sur entró en una inestabilidad política extrema, ya que un gobierno militar derrocaba a otro en rápida sucesión. Cada vez más, los comunistas veían a cada nuevo régimen como un títere de los estadounidenses; cualesquiera que fueran los fallos de Diệm, sus credenciales como nacionalista habían sido impecables. [82] : 328  asesores estadounidenses estaban integrados en todos los niveles de las fuerzas armadas de Vietnam del Sur. Sin embargo, fueron criticados por ignorar la naturaleza política de la insurgencia. [125] La administración Kennedy intentó reorientar los esfuerzos estadounidenses hacia la pacificación -que en este caso se definió como contrarrestar la creciente amenaza de la insurgencia [126] [127] - y "ganarse los corazones y las mentes" de la población. Sin embargo, el liderazgo militar en Washington era hostil a cualquier papel para los asesores estadounidenses que no fuera el entrenamiento de tropas. [128] El general Paul Harkins , comandante de las fuerzas estadounidenses en Vietnam del Sur , predijo confiadamente la victoria para la Navidad de 1963. [84] : 103  Sin embargo, la CIA fue menos optimista y advirtió que "el Viet Cong en general conserva el control de facto de gran parte del campo y ha aumentado constantemente la intensidad general del esfuerzo". [129]

Oficiales paramilitares de la División de Actividades Especiales de la CIA entrenaron y dirigieron a miembros de la tribu Hmong en Laos y en Vietnam. Las fuerzas indígenas sumaban decenas de miles y llevaron a cabo misiones de acción directa, dirigidas por oficiales paramilitares, contra las fuerzas comunistas del Pathet Lao y sus partidarios norvietnamitas. [130] La CIA dirigió el Programa Phoenix y participó en el Comando de Asistencia Militar, Vietnam – Grupo de Estudios y Observaciones (MAC-V SOG). [131]

El golfo de Tonkín y la escalada de Johnson, 1963-1969

El presidente Kennedy fue asesinado el 22 de noviembre de 1963. El vicepresidente Lyndon B. Johnson no había estado muy involucrado en la política hacia Vietnam; [132] [A 9] sin embargo, al convertirse en presidente, inmediatamente se centró en ella. El 24 de noviembre de 1963, dijo, "la batalla contra el comunismo  ... debe ser librada  ... con fuerza y ​​determinación". [134] Johnson sabía que había heredado una situación en deterioro en Vietnam del Sur, [135] pero se adhirió al argumento del dominó ampliamente aceptado para defender al Sur: si se retiraban o se apaciguaban, cualquiera de las dos acciones pondría en peligro a otras naciones. [136] Los hallazgos del Proyecto de Motivación y Moral del Viet Cong de RAND reforzaron su confianza en que una guerra aérea debilitaría al Viet Cong. Algunos sostienen que la política de Vietnam del Norte no era derrocar a otros gobiernos no comunistas en el sudeste asiático. [82] : 48 

El consejo militar revolucionario, que se reunía en lugar de un líder fuerte de Vietnam del Sur, tenía 12 miembros. Estaba encabezado por el general Dương Văn Minh , a quien el periodista Stanley Karnow recordó como "un modelo de letargo". [93] : 340  Lodge envió un cable a casa sobre Minh: "¿Será lo suficientemente fuerte como para hacerse cargo de las cosas?" El régimen de Minh fue derrocado en enero de 1964 por el general Nguyễn Khánh . [93] : 341  Había una inestabilidad persistente en el ejército: varios golpes de Estado, no todos exitosos, ocurrieron en un corto período de tiempo.

Incidente del Golfo de Tonkín

Un destructor B-66 estadounidense y cuatro Thunderchiefs F-105 lanzan bombas sobre Vietnam del Norte durante la Operación Rolling Thunder

El 2 de agosto de 1964, el USS  Maddox , en una misión de inteligencia a lo largo de la costa de Vietnam del Norte, disparó y dañó torpederos que se acercaban a él en el Golfo de Tonkín. [60] : 124  Se informó de un segundo ataque dos días después contra el USS  Turner Joy y el Maddox . Las circunstancias eran turbias. [29] : 218–219  Johnson comentó al subsecretario de Estado George Ball que "esos marineros de ahí fuera pueden haber estado disparando a peces voladores". [137] Una publicación de la NSA desclasificada en 2005 reveló que no hubo ningún ataque el 4 de agosto. [138]

El segundo "ataque" condujo a ataques aéreos de represalia y llevó al Congreso a aprobar la Resolución del Golfo de Tonkín el 7 de agosto de 1964. [139] : 78  La resolución le otorgó al presidente el poder "para tomar todas las medidas necesarias para repeler cualquier ataque armado contra las fuerzas de los Estados Unidos y prevenir más agresiones" y Johnson confió en esto como si le diera autoridad para expandir la guerra. [29] : 221  Johnson prometió que no estaba "comprometiendo a los muchachos estadounidenses a luchar en una guerra que creo que deberían luchar los muchachos de Asia para ayudar a proteger su propia tierra". [29] : 227 

El Consejo de Seguridad Nacional recomendó una escalada en tres etapas del bombardeo de Vietnam del Norte. Tras un ataque a una base del ejército estadounidense el 7 de febrero de 1965, [140] se iniciaron ataques aéreos, mientras el primer ministro soviético Alexei Kosygin estaba en una visita de Estado a Vietnam del Norte. La Operación Rolling Thunder y la Operación Arc Light ampliaron los bombardeos aéreos y las operaciones de apoyo terrestre. [141] La campaña de bombardeos, que duró tres años, tenía como objetivo obligar a Vietnam del Norte a cesar su apoyo al Viet Cong amenazando con destruir las defensas aéreas y la infraestructura norvietnamitas. Además, tenía como objetivo reforzar la moral de Vietnam del Sur. [142] Entre marzo de 1965 y noviembre de 1968, Rolling Thunder inundó el norte con un millón de toneladas de misiles, cohetes y bombas. [93] : 468 

Bombardeo de Laos

Los bombardeos no se limitaron a Vietnam del Norte. Otras campañas aéreas se dirigieron a diferentes partes de la infraestructura del Viet Cong y del PAVN, incluida la ruta de abastecimiento de Ho Chi Minh, que atravesaba Laos y Camboya. El Laos, aparentemente neutral, se había convertido en el escenario de una guerra civil que enfrentaba al gobierno laosiano , respaldado por Estados Unidos, contra el Pathet Lao y sus aliados norvietnamitas.

Los Estados Unidos llevaron a cabo bombardeos aéreos masivos contra las fuerzas del Pathet Lao y del PAVN para impedir el colapso del gobierno central real y negar el uso de la Ruta Ho Chi Minh. Entre 1964 y 1973, los Estados Unidos lanzaron dos millones de toneladas de bombas sobre Laos, casi igual a los 2,1 millones de toneladas de bombas que lanzaron sobre Europa y Asia durante la Segunda Guerra Mundial, convirtiendo a Laos en el país más bombardeado de la historia, en relación con su población. [143]

El objetivo de detener a Vietnam del Norte y al Viet Cong nunca se alcanzó. Sin embargo, el Jefe del Estado Mayor de la Fuerza Aérea de los Estados Unidos, Curtis LeMay , había abogado durante mucho tiempo por los bombardeos de saturación en Vietnam y escribió sobre los comunistas que "los bombardearemos hasta devolverlos a la Edad de Piedra". [29] : 328 

La ofensiva de 1964

Fuerzas del ARVN y un asesor estadounidense inspeccionan un helicóptero derribado, batalla de Dong Xoai , junio de 1965

Tras la Resolución del Golfo de Tonkín, Hanoi anticipó la llegada de tropas estadounidenses y comenzó a expandir el Viet Cong, además de enviar un número cada vez mayor de personal norvietnamita hacia el sur. Estaban equipando a las fuerzas del Viet Cong y estandarizando su equipo con rifles AK-47 y otros suministros, además de formar la 9.ª División . [29] : 223  [144] "De una fuerza de aproximadamente 5.000 a principios de 1959, las filas del Viet Cong crecieron a unos 100.000 a finales de 1964  ... Entre 1961 y 1964, la fuerza del Ejército aumentó de unos 850.000 a casi un millón de hombres". [125] El número de tropas estadounidenses desplegadas en Vietnam durante el mismo período fue mucho menor: 2.000 en 1961, aumentando a 16.500 en 1964. [145] El uso de equipo capturado disminuyó, mientras que se requirió una mayor cantidad de municiones y suministros para mantener unidades regulares. El Grupo 559 fue encargado de expandir la ruta de Ho Chi Minh, a la luz del bombardeo de los aviones de guerra estadounidenses. La guerra había pasado a la fase final y convencional del modelo de guerra prolongada de tres etapas de Hanoi . El Viet Cong ahora tenía la tarea de destruir al ARVN y capturar y mantener áreas; sin embargo, aún no era lo suficientemente fuerte como para asaltar ciudades y pueblos importantes.

En diciembre de 1964, las fuerzas del ARVN sufrieron graves pérdidas en la batalla de Bình Giã , [146] en una batalla que ambos bandos consideraron un punto de inflexión. Anteriormente, el VC había utilizado tácticas de guerrilla de golpe y fuga. Sin embargo, en Binh Gia, derrotaron a una fuerte fuerza del ARVN en una batalla convencional y permanecieron en el campo durante cuatro días. [147] : 58  Es significativo que las fuerzas de Vietnam del Sur fueran derrotadas nuevamente en junio de 1965 en la batalla de Đồng Xoài . [147] : 94 

Guerra terrestre americana

Un infante de marina del 1.er Batallón, 3.er Regimiento de Marines , traslada a un presunto miembro del Viet Cong durante una operación de búsqueda y limpieza llevada a cabo por el batallón a 15 millas (24 km) al oeste de la base aérea de Da Nang , en 1965.

El 8 de marzo de 1965, 3.500 marines estadounidenses desembarcaron cerca de Da Nang , Vietnam del Sur. [29] : 246–247  Esto marcó el comienzo de la guerra terrestre estadounidense. La opinión pública estadounidense apoyó abrumadoramente el despliegue. [148] La misión inicial de los marines fue la defensa de la base aérea de Da Nang . El primer despliegue de 3.500 en marzo de 1965 se incrementó a casi 200.000 en diciembre. [82] : 349–351  El ejército estadounidense había sido instruido durante mucho tiempo en la guerra ofensiva. Independientemente de las políticas políticas, los comandantes estadounidenses no estaban institucionalmente ni psicológicamente preparados para una misión defensiva. [82] : 349–351 

El general William Westmoreland informó al almirante estadounidense Grant Sharp Jr. , comandante de las fuerzas estadounidenses en el Pacífico, que la situación era crítica, [82] : 349–351  "Estoy convencido de que las tropas estadounidenses con su energía, movilidad y potencia de fuego pueden llevar con éxito la lucha al NLF (Viet Cong)". [149] Con esta recomendación, Westmoreland estaba abogando por un cambio agresivo de la postura defensiva de Estados Unidos y la marginación de los vietnamitas del sur. Al ignorar las unidades del ARVN, el compromiso estadounidense quedó abierto. [82] : 353  Westmoreland esbozó un plan de tres puntos para ganar la guerra:

El plan fue aprobado por Johnson y marcó un profundo cambio con respecto a la insistencia en que Vietnam del Sur era responsable de derrotar a las guerrillas. Westmoreland predijo la victoria para fines de 1967. [151] Johnson no comunicó este cambio de estrategia a los medios. En cambio, enfatizó la continuidad. [152] El cambio de política dependía de igualar a los norvietnamitas y al Viet Cong en una contienda de desgaste y moral . Los oponentes estaban atrapados en un ciclo de escalada . [82] : 353–354  Westmoreland y McNamara promocionaron el sistema de recuento de cadáveres para medir la victoria, una métrica que demostraría ser defectuosa. [153]

Campesinos sospechosos de ser miembros del Viet Cong detenidos por el ejército de los EE. UU., 1966

La expansión militar estadounidense transformó la economía de Vietnam del Sur y tuvo un profundo efecto en la sociedad. Vietnam del Sur se vio inundado de productos manufacturados. Washington alentó a sus aliados de la SEATO a contribuir con tropas; Australia, Nueva Zelanda, Tailandia y Filipinas [93] : 556  aceptaron hacerlo. Corea del Sur solicitaría unirse al programa Many Flags a cambio de una compensación económica. Sin embargo, los principales aliados, en particular los países de la OTAN Canadá y el Reino Unido, rechazaron las solicitudes de tropas. [154]

Estados Unidos y sus aliados montaron complejas operaciones de búsqueda y destrucción . En noviembre de 1965, Estados Unidos participó en su primera batalla importante con el PAVN, la Batalla de Ia Drang . [155] La operación fue el primer asalto aéreo en helicóptero a gran escala por parte de Estados Unidos, y la primera en emplear bombarderos estratégicos Boeing B-52 Stratofortress en apoyo. [29] : 284–285  Estas tácticas continuaron en 1966-67, sin embargo, los insurgentes del PAVN/VC siguieron siendo esquivos y demostraron flexibilidad táctica. Para 1967, la guerra había generado refugiados internos a gran escala, 2 millones en Vietnam del Sur, con 125.000 personas evacuadas y sin hogar solo durante la Operación Masher , [156] que fue la mayor operación de búsqueda y destrucción hasta ese momento. Sin embargo, la Operación Masher tendría un impacto insignificante, ya que el PAVN/VC regresó a la provincia solo cuatro meses después de que terminara. [157] : 153–156  A pesar de las operaciones importantes, que el Viet Cong y la PAVN normalmente evadían, la guerra se caracterizó por contactos o enfrentamientos de unidades más pequeñas. [158] El Viet Cong y la PAVN iniciarían el 90% de los grandes tiroteos y, por lo tanto, la PAVN/Viet Cong mantendrían la iniciativa estratégica a pesar del abrumador despliegue de fuerza y ​​potencia de fuego de los EE. UU. [158] La PAVN y el Viet Cong habían desarrollado estrategias capaces de contrarrestar las doctrinas y tácticas militares de los EE. UU.: véase tácticas de batalla del NLF y la PAVN .

Mientras tanto, la situación política en Vietnam del Sur comenzó a estabilizarse con la llegada del primer ministro, el mariscal del aire Nguyễn Cao Kỳ, y el jefe de estado, el general Nguyễn Văn Thiệu , a mediados de 1965 al frente de una junta. En 1967, Thieu se convirtió en presidente con Ky como su adjunto, después de unas elecciones amañadas. Aunque nominalmente eran un gobierno civil, se suponía que Ky mantendría el poder real a través de un cuerpo militar tras bambalinas. Sin embargo, Thieu superó en maniobras a Ky y lo marginó. Thieu fue acusado de asesinar a los leales a Ky mediante accidentes militares artificiales. Thieu permaneció como presidente hasta 1975, después de haber ganado una elección de un solo candidato en 1971. [ 93] : 706 

Johnson empleó una "política de mínima franqueza" [93] : 18  con los medios de comunicación. Los oficiales de información militar trataron de manejar la cobertura enfatizando historias que retrataban el progreso. Esta política dañó la confianza pública en los pronunciamientos oficiales. A medida que la cobertura de la guerra y el Pentágono divergieron, se desarrolló una denominada brecha de credibilidad . [93] : 18  A pesar de que Johnson y Westmoreland proclamaron públicamente la victoria y Westmoreland afirmó que "el final está a la vista", [159] los informes internos en los Papeles del Pentágono indican que las fuerzas del Viet Cong mantuvieron la iniciativa estratégica y controlaron sus pérdidas. Los ataques del Viet Cong contra posiciones estadounidenses estáticas representaron el 30% de los enfrentamientos, las emboscadas y cercos del Viet Cong/PAVN el 23%, las emboscadas estadounidenses contra fuerzas del Viet Cong/PAVN el 9%, y las fuerzas estadounidenses que atacaron emplazamientos del Viet Cong solo el 5%. [158]

La Ofensiva del Tet y sus consecuencias

Viet Cong antes de partir para participar en la Ofensiva Tet alrededor de Saigón-Gia Dinh
Las fuerzas del ARVN asaltan una fortaleza en el delta del Mekong .

A fines de 1967, el PAVN atrajo a las fuerzas estadounidenses al interior de Đắk Tô y a la base de combate de la Marina Khe Sanh , donde Estados Unidos luchó en las "The Hill Fights" . Estas eran parte de una estrategia de distracción destinada a atraer a las fuerzas estadounidenses hacia las Tierras Altas Centrales. [160] Se estaban realizando preparativos para la Ofensiva del Tet , con la intención de que las fuerzas de Văn Tiến Dũng lanzaran "ataques directos contra los centros neurálgicos estadounidenses y títeres: Saigón, Huế , Danang, todas las ciudades, pueblos y bases principales  ..." [161] Le Duan buscó aplacar a los críticos del estancamiento planeando una victoria decisiva. [162] : 90–94  Razonó que esto podría lograrse provocando un levantamiento dentro de los pueblos y ciudades, [162] : 148  junto con deserciones masivas entre las unidades del ARVN, que estaban de permiso durante el período de tregua. [163]

La Ofensiva del Tet comenzó el 30 de enero de 1968, cuando más de 100 ciudades fueron atacadas por más de 85.000 tropas del VC/PAVN, incluidos asaltos a instalaciones militares, cuarteles generales y edificios gubernamentales, incluida la Embajada de los Estados Unidos en Saigón . [82] : 363–365  Las fuerzas estadounidenses y de Vietnam del Sur se sorprendieron por la escala, la intensidad y la planificación deliberada, ya que la infiltración de personal y armas en las ciudades se realizó de forma encubierta; [161] la ofensiva constituyó un fracaso de inteligencia a la escala de Pearl Harbor . [93] : 556  La mayoría de las ciudades fueron recapturadas en cuestión de semanas, excepto la antigua capital imperial Huế, que las tropas del PAVN/Viet Cong mantuvieron durante 26 días. [164] : 495  Ejecutaron a aproximadamente 2.800 civiles desarmados de Huế y extranjeros que consideraban espías. [165] [164] : 495  En la siguiente Batalla de Huế las fuerzas estadounidenses emplearon una potencia de fuego masiva que dejó el 80% de la ciudad en ruinas. [60] : 308–309  En la ciudad de Quảng Trị, la División Aerotransportada del ARVN , la 1.ª División y un regimiento de la 1.ª División de Caballería de los EE. UU. lograron resistir y superar un asalto destinado a capturar la ciudad. [166] [167] : 104  En Saigón, los combatientes del Viet Cong/PAVN habían capturado áreas dentro y alrededor de la ciudad, atacando instalaciones clave antes de que las fuerzas estadounidenses y del ARVN los desalojaran después de tres semanas. [29] : 479  Durante una batalla, Peter Arnett informó que un comandante de infantería dijo de la Batalla de Bến Tre que "se hizo necesario destruir la aldea para salvarla". [168] [169]

Las ruinas de una sección de Saigón, en el barrio de Cholon, tras los feroces combates entre las fuerzas del ARVN y los batallones de la Fuerza Principal del Viet Cong.

Durante el primer mes de la ofensiva, 1.100 estadounidenses y otras tropas aliadas, 2.100 ARVN y 14.000 civiles murieron. [170] Después de dos meses, casi 5.000 ARVN y más de 4.000 fuerzas estadounidenses habían muerto y 45.820 heridos. [170] Estados Unidos afirmó que 17.000 miembros del PAVN y del Viet Cong habían muerto y 15.000 habían resultado heridos. [167] : 104  [166] : 82  Un mes después se lanzó una segunda ofensiva conocida como la Ofensiva de Mayo ; demostró que el Viet Cong todavía era capaz de llevar a cabo ofensivas orquestadas a nivel nacional. [29] : 488–489  Dos meses después se lanzó una tercera ofensiva, la Ofensiva de Fase III . Los registros de pérdidas del PAVN en las tres ofensivas fueron de 45.267 muertos y 111.179 bajas totales. [171] [172] Se había convertido en el año más sangriento hasta entonces. El fracaso en provocar un levantamiento general y la falta de deserciones entre las unidades del ARVN significaron que ambos objetivos de guerra de Hanoi habían fracasado a un costo enorme. [162] : 148–149 

Antes del Tet, en noviembre de 1967, Westmoreland había encabezado una campaña de relaciones públicas para la administración Johnson con el fin de reforzar el apoyo público que estaba menguando. [173] En un discurso ante el Club Nacional de Prensa, dijo que se había llegado a un punto "en el que el final se vislumbra". [174] Por lo tanto, el público se sorprendió y se confundió cuando las predicciones de Westmoreland fueron superadas por la Ofensiva del Tet. [173] La aprobación pública de su actuación cayó del 48% al 36%, y el apoyo a la guerra cayó del 40% al 26%". [93] : 546  El público y los medios de comunicación comenzaron a volverse contra Johnson a medida que las ofensivas contradecían las afirmaciones de progreso. [173]

En un momento de 1968, Westmoreland consideró el uso de armas nucleares en un plan de contingencia con nombre en código Fracture Jaw , que fue abandonado cuando se conoció en la Casa Blanca. [175] Westmoreland solicitó 200.000 tropas adicionales, lo que se filtró a los medios, y las consecuencias combinadas con fallas de inteligencia hicieron que lo destituyeran del mando en marzo de 1968, sucedido por su adjunto Creighton Abrams . [176]

El 10 de mayo de 1968, comenzaron las conversaciones de paz entre Estados Unidos y Vietnam del Norte en París. Las negociaciones se estancaron durante cinco meses, hasta que Johnson dio órdenes de detener el bombardeo de Vietnam del Norte. Hanoi se dio cuenta de que no podía lograr una "victoria total" y empleó una estrategia conocida como "hablar mientras se lucha, luchar mientras se habla", en la que las ofensivas se producirían simultáneamente con las negociaciones. [177]

Johnson se negó a presentarse a la reelección cuando su índice de aprobación cayó del 48% al 36%. [29] : 486  Su escalada de la guerra dividió a los estadounidenses, costó 30.000 vidas estadounidenses en ese momento y se consideró que había destruido su presidencia. [29] : 486  La negativa a enviar más tropas fue vista como la admisión de Johnson de que la guerra estaba perdida. [178] Como señaló el Secretario de Defensa Robert McNamara, "la peligrosa ilusión de victoria de los Estados Unidos estaba, por tanto, muerta". [82] : 367 

Vietnam fue un tema político importante durante las elecciones presidenciales de Estados Unidos en 1968. Las elecciones fueron ganadas por el republicano Richard Nixon, quien afirmó tener un plan secreto para poner fin a la guerra. [29] : 515  [179]

Vietnamización, 1969-1972

Amenazas nucleares y diplomacia

El presidente Nixon comenzó a retirar tropas en 1969. Su plan para fortalecer el ARVN para que pudiera hacerse cargo de la defensa de Vietnam del Sur se conoció como " vietnamización ". Mientras el PAVN/VC se recuperaba de sus pérdidas de 1968 y evitaba el contacto, Creighton Abrams llevó a cabo operaciones destinadas a interrumpir la logística, con un mejor uso de la potencia de fuego y una mayor cooperación con el ARVN. [29] : 517  En octubre de 1969, Nixon había ordenado a los B-52 cargados con armas nucleares que corrieran hacia la frontera del espacio aéreo soviético para convencer a la Unión Soviética, de acuerdo con la teoría del loco , de que era capaz de cualquier cosa para poner fin a la guerra de Vietnam. [180] [181] Nixon había buscado la distensión con la Unión Soviética y el acercamiento a China , lo que disminuyó las tensiones y llevó a reducciones de armas nucleares. Sin embargo, los soviéticos continuaron suministrando a los norvietnamitas. [182] [183]

La estrategia de guerra de Hanoi

Folleto de propaganda que instaba a la deserción del Viet Cong y los norvietnamitas al lado de la República de Vietnam

En septiembre de 1969, Ho Chi Minh murió a los 79 años. [184] El fracaso de la Ofensiva del Tet de 1968 para provocar un levantamiento popular en el sur provocó un cambio en la estrategia de guerra de Hanoi, y la facción Giáp - Chinh "Primero del Norte" recuperó el control de los asuntos militares de la facción Lê Duẩn- Hoàng Văn Thái "Primero del Sur". [185] : 272–274  Una victoria no convencional fue dejada de lado en favor de una victoria convencional a través de la conquista. [162] : 196–205  Las ofensivas a gran escala fueron revertidas en favor de ataques de unidades pequeñas y zapadores , así como de la estrategia de pacificación y vietnamización. [185] Después del Tet, la PAVN se había transformado de una fuerza de infantería ligera y movilidad limitada a una fuerza de armas combinadas mecanizada y de alta movilidad . [185] : 189  En 1970, más del 70% de las tropas comunistas en el sur eran norteñas, y las unidades del VC dominadas por los sureños ya no existían. [186]

Controversias internas en Estados Unidos

El movimiento contra la guerra estaba ganando fuerza en Estados Unidos. Nixon apeló a la " mayoría silenciosa " que, según él, apoyaba la guerra sin demostrarlo. Pero las revelaciones de la Masacre de My Lai de 1968 , [29] : 518–521  en la que una unidad del ejército estadounidense al mando del capitán Ernest Medina violó y mató a civiles, y el " Asunto de los Boinas Verdes " de 1969, en el que ocho soldados de las Fuerzas Especiales fueron arrestados por el asesinato [187] de un presunto agente doble, [188] provocaron indignación nacional e internacional.

En 1971, The New York Times filtró los Papeles del Pentágono , una historia secreta de la intervención estadounidense en Vietnam, encargada por el Departamento de Defensa, que detallaba los engaños públicos por parte del gobierno. La Corte Suprema dictaminó que su publicación era legal. [189]

La moral estadounidense se derrumba

Después de la Ofensiva del Tet y la disminución del apoyo entre el público estadounidense, las fuerzas estadounidenses comenzaron un período de colapso moral y desobediencia. [190] : 349–350  [191] : 166–175  En casa, las tasas de deserción se cuadriplicaron desde los niveles de 1966. [192] Entre los alistados, solo el 2,5% eligió posiciones de combate de infantería en 1969-70. [192] La inscripción al ROTC disminuyó de 191.749 en 1966 a 72.459 en 1971, [193] y alcanzó un mínimo de 33.220 en 1974, [194] privando a las fuerzas estadounidenses de un liderazgo militar muy necesario.

Surgió una negativa abierta a participar en patrullas o cumplir órdenes, con un caso notable de una compañía entera que se negó a cumplir órdenes de llevar a cabo operaciones. [195] La cohesión de la unidad comenzó a disiparse y se centró en minimizar el contacto con el Viet Cong y el PAVN. [191] Comenzó una práctica conocida como "sand-bagging", donde las unidades a las que se les ordenó patrullar iban al campo, encontraban un sitio fuera de la vista de los superiores y enviaban por radio coordenadas falsas e informes de la unidad. [157] : 407–411  El consumo de drogas aumentó entre las fuerzas estadounidenses, el 30% consumía marihuana regularmente, [157] : 407  mientras que un subcomité de la Cámara encontró que el 10% consumía heroína de alta calidad regularmente. [192] [29] : 526  A partir de 1969, las operaciones de búsqueda y destrucción pasaron a denominarse operaciones de "búsqueda y evasión", falsificando informes de batalla mientras se evitaban a las guerrillas. [196] Se investigaron 900 incidentes de fragging y presuntos incidentes de fragging , la mayoría ocurrieron entre 1969 y 1971. [197] : 331  [157] : 407  En 1969, el desempeño en el campo se caracterizó por una moral baja, falta de motivación y un liderazgo deficiente. [197] : 331  La disminución significativa de la moral estadounidense se demostró en la Batalla de FSB Mary Ann en marzo de 1971, en la que un ataque de zapadores infligió graves pérdidas a los defensores estadounidenses. [197] : 357  William Westmoreland, que ya no estaba al mando pero estaba encargado de investigar el fracaso, citó un incumplimiento del deber, posturas defensivas laxas y falta de oficiales a cargo. [197] : 357 

Sobre el colapso de la moral, el historiador Shelby Stanton escribió:

En los últimos años de la retirada del ejército, las fuerzas restantes fueron relegadas a una situación de seguridad estática. La decadencia del ejército estadounidense se hizo evidente en esta etapa final. Los incidentes raciales, el abuso de drogas, la desobediencia en combate y el crimen reflejaban una creciente ociosidad, resentimiento y frustración  ... los obstáculos fatales de una estrategia de campaña defectuosa, una preparación incompleta en tiempos de guerra y los intentos tardíos y superficiales de vietnamización. Todo un ejército estadounidense fue sacrificado en el campo de batalla de Vietnam. [197] : 366–368 

El ARVN toma la iniciativa y las fuerzas terrestres estadounidenses se retiran

ARVN y las fuerzas especiales de los EE. UU., septiembre de 1968

A partir de 1969, las tropas estadounidenses se retiraron de las zonas fronterizas donde se desarrollaban la mayor parte de los combates y se desplegaron a lo largo de la costa y el interior. Las bajas estadounidenses en 1970 fueron menos de la mitad de las de 1969, tras ser relegadas a un combate menos activo. [198] Mientras las fuerzas estadounidenses se redistribuían, el ARVN se hizo cargo de las operaciones de combate, con bajas que duplicaron las de Estados Unidos en 1969 y más del triple de las de Estados Unidos en 1970. [199] En el entorno posterior al Tet, el número de miembros de las milicias Fuerza Regional de Vietnam del Sur y Fuerza Popular aumentó, y ahora eran más capaces de proporcionar seguridad a las aldeas, algo que los estadounidenses no habían logrado. [199]

En 1970, Nixon anunció la retirada de 150.000 soldados estadounidenses adicionales, reduciendo el número de tropas estadounidenses a 265.500. [198] En 1970, las fuerzas del Viet Cong ya no eran mayoritariamente sureñas, casi el 70% de las unidades eran norteñas. [200] Entre 1969 y 1971, el Viet Cong y algunas unidades de la PAVN habían vuelto a las tácticas de unidades pequeñas típicas de 1967 y anteriores, en lugar de ofensivas a nivel nacional. [162] En 1971, Australia y Nueva Zelanda retiraron a sus soldados y las tropas estadounidenses se redujeron aún más a 196.700, con una fecha límite para retirar otras 45.000 tropas en febrero de 1972. Estados Unidos redujo las tropas de apoyo y en marzo de 1971 se retiró el 5.º Grupo de Fuerzas Especiales , la primera unidad estadounidense desplegada en Vietnam del Sur. [201] : 240  [A 10]

Camboya

Un supuesto Viet Cong capturado durante un ataque a un puesto avanzado estadounidense cerca de la frontera con Camboya es interrogado.

El príncipe Norodom Sihanouk había proclamado a Camboya neutral desde 1955, [204] pero permitió que el PAVN/Viet Cong utilizara el puerto de Sihanoukville y la ruta de Sihanouk . En marzo de 1969, Nixon lanzó una campaña secreta de bombardeos, llamada Operación Menú , contra los santuarios comunistas a lo largo de la frontera entre Camboya y Vietnam. Sólo cinco funcionarios de alto rango del Congreso fueron informados. [A 11]

In March 1970, Prince Sihanouk was deposed by his pro-American prime minister Lon Nol, who demanded North Vietnamese troops leave Cambodia or face military action.[205] Nol began rounding up Vietnamese civilians in Cambodia into internment camps and massacring them, provoking reactions from the North and South Vietnamese governments.[206] In April–May 1970, North Vietnam invaded Cambodia at the request of the Khmer Rouge, following negotiations with deputy leader Nuon Chea. Nguyen Co Thach recalls: "Nuon Chea has asked for help and we have liberated five provinces of Cambodia in ten days."[207] US and ARVN forces launched the Cambodian Campaign in May to attack PAVN and Viet Cong bases. A counter-offensive in 1971, as part of Operation Chenla II by the PAVN, would recapture most of the border areas and decimate most of Nol's forces.

The US incursion into Cambodia sparked nationwide U.S. protests as Nixon had promised to deescalate American involvement. Four students were killed by National Guardsmen in May 1970 during a protest at Kent State University, which provoked further public outrage. The reaction by the administration was seen as callous, reinvigorating the declining anti-war movement.[191]: 128–129  The US Air Force continued to bomb Cambodia in support of the Cambodian government as part of Operation Freedom Deal.

Laos

Building on the success of ARVN units in Cambodia, and further testing the Vietnamization program, the ARVN were tasked with Operation Lam Son 719 in February 1971, the first major ground operation to attack the Ho Chi Minh trail, at the crossroad of Tchepone. This offensive was the first time the PAVN would field-test its combined arms force.[162] The first few days were a success, but momentum slowed after fierce resistance. Thiệu had halted the general advance, leaving armored divisions able to surround them.[208]

Thieu ordered air assault troops to capture Tchepone and withdraw, despite facing four-times larger numbers. During the withdrawal, the PAVN counterattack had forced a panicked rout. Half of the ARVN troops were either captured or killed, half of the ARVN/US support helicopters were downed and the operation was considered a fiasco, demonstrating operational deficiencies within the ARVN.[93]: 644–645  Nixon and Thieu had sought to use to showcase victory simply by capturing Tchepone, and it was spun off as an "operational success".[209][29]: 576–582 

Easter Offensive and Paris Peace Accords, 1972

Soviet advisers inspecting the debris of a B-52 downed in the vicinity of Hanoi

Vietnamization was again tested by the Easter Offensive of 1972, a conventional PAVN invasion of South Vietnam. The PAVN overran the northern provinces and attacked from Cambodia, threatening to cut the country in half. US troop withdrawals continued, but American airpower responded, beginning Operation Linebacker, and the offensive was halted.[29]: 606–637 

The war was central to the 1972 U.S. presidential election as Nixon's opponent, George McGovern, campaigned on immediate withdrawal. Nixon's Security Advisor, Henry Kissinger, had continued secret negotiations with North Vietnam's Lê Đức Thọ and in October 1972 reached an agreement. President Thieu demanded changes to the peace accord upon its discovery, and when North Vietnam went public with the details, the Nixon administration claimed they were attempting to embarrass the president. The negotiations became deadlocked when Hanoi demanded changes. To show his support for South Vietnam and force Hanoi back to the negotiating table, Nixon ordered Operation Linebacker II, a bombing of Hanoi and Haiphong in December 1972.[29]: 649–663  Nixon pressured Thieu to accept the agreement or face military action.[210]

On 15 January 1973, all US combat activities were suspended. Lê Đức Thọ and Henry Kissinger, along with the PRG Foreign Minister Nguyễn Thị Bình and a reluctant President Thiệu, signed the Paris Peace Accords on 27 January 1973.[157]: 508–513  This ended direct U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War, created a ceasefire between North Vietnam/PRG and South Vietnam, guaranteed the territorial integrity of Vietnam under the Geneva Conference of 1954, called for elections or a political settlement between the PRG and South Vietnam, allowed 200,000 communist troops to remain in the south, and agreed to a POW exchange. There was a 60-day period for the withdrawal of US forces. "This article", noted Peter Church, "proved ... to be the only one of the Paris Agreements which was fully carried out."[211] All US forces personnel were withdrawn by March 1973.[84]: 260 

U.S. exit and final campaigns, 1973–1975

American POWs recently released from North Vietnamese prison camps, 1973

In the lead-up to the ceasefire on 28 January, both sides attempted to maximize land and population under their control in a campaign known as the War of the flags. Fighting continued after the ceasefire, without US participation, and throughout the year.[157]: 508–513  North Vietnam was allowed to continue supplying troops in the South but only to replace expended material. The Nobel Peace Prize was awarded to Kissinger and Thọ, but the North Vietnamese negotiator declined it saying true peace did not yet exist.

On 15 March 1973, Nixon implied the US would intervene militarily if the North launched a full offensive, and Secretary of Defense Schlesinger re-affirmed this during his June confirmation hearings. Public and congressional reaction to Nixon's statement was unfavorable, prompting the Senate to pass the Case–Church Amendment to prohibit any intervention.[93]: 670–672 

PAVN/VC leaders expected the ceasefire terms would favor their side, but Saigon, bolstered by a surge of US aid just before the ceasefire went into effect, began to roll back the Viet Cong. The PAVN/VC responded with a new strategy hammered out in meetings in Hanoi in March 1973, according to the memoirs of Trần Văn Trà.[93]: 672–674  With US bombings suspended, work on the Ho Chi Minh trail and other logistical structures could proceed. Logistics would be upgraded until the North was in a position to launch a massive invasion of the South, projected for the 1975–76 dry season. Tra calculated this date would be Hanoi's last opportunity to strike, before Saigon's army could be fully trained.[93]: 672–674  The PAVN/VC resumed offensive operations when the dry season began in 1973, and by January 1974 had recaptured territory it lost during the previous dry season.

Memorial commemorating the 1974 Buon Me Thuot campaign, depicting a Montagnard of the Central Highlands, a NVA soldier and a T-54 tank

Within South Vietnam, the departure of the US and the global recession after the 1973 oil crisis hurt an economy partly dependent on US financial support and troop presence. After clashes that left 55 ARVN soldiers dead, Thieu announced on 4 January 1974, that the war had restarted and the Peace Accords were no longer in effect. There were over 25,000 South Vietnamese casualties during the ceasefire period.[212][29]: 683  Gerald Ford took over as US president in August 1974, and Congress cut financial aid to South Vietnam from $1 billion a year to $700 million. Congress voted in restrictions on funding to be phased in through 1975 and then total cutoff in 1976.[29]: 686 

The success of the 1973–1974 dry season offensive inspired Trà to return to Hanoi in October 1974 and plead for a larger offensive the next dry season. This time, Trà could travel on a drivable highway with fueling stops, a vast change from when the Ho Chi Minh trail was a dangerous mountain trek.[93]: 676  Giáp, the North Vietnamese defense minister, was reluctant to approve Trà's plan since a larger offensive might provoke US reaction and interfere with the big push planned for 1976. Trà appealed to Giáp's superior, Lê Duẩn, who approved it. Trà's plan called for a limited offensive from Cambodia into Phước Long Province. The strike was designed to solve logistical problems, gauge the reaction of South Vietnamese forces, and determine whether the US would return.[29]: 685–690  On 13 December 1974, North Vietnamese forces attacked Phước Long. Phuoc Binh fell on 6 January 1975. Ford desperately asked Congress for funds to assist and re-supply the South before it was overrun.[213] Congress refused.[213] The fall of Phuoc Binh and lack of American response left the South Vietnamese elite demoralized.

The speed of this success led the Politburo to reassess its strategy. It decided operations in the Central Highlands would be turned over to General Văn Tiến Dũng and that Pleiku should be seized, if possible. Dũng said to Lê Duẩn: "Never have we had military and political conditions so perfect or a strategic advantage as great as we have now."[214] At the start of 1975, the South Vietnamese had three times as much artillery and twice as many tanks and armored cars as the PAVN. However, heightened oil prices meant many assets could not be leveraged. Moreover, the rushed nature of Vietnamization, intended to cover the US retreat, resulted in a lack of spare parts, ground-crew, and maintenance personnel, which rendered most of it inoperable.[190]: 362–366 

Campaign 275

The capture of Hue, March 1975

On 10 March 1975, General Dung launched Campaign 275, a limited offensive into the Central Highlands, supported by tanks and heavy artillery. The target was Ban Ma Thuột; if the town could be taken, the provincial capital Pleiku and the road to the coast, would be exposed for a campaign in 1976. The ARVN proved incapable of resisting the onslaught, and its forces collapsed. Again, Hanoi was surprised by the speed of their success. Dung urged the Politburo to allow him to seize Pleiku immediately and turn his attention to Kon Tum. He argued that with two months of good weather until onset of the monsoon, it would be irresponsible not to take advantage.[11]

President Thiệu, a former general, was fearful his forces would be cut off in the north by the attacking communists; Thieu ordered a retreat, which turned into a bloody rout. While the bulk of ARVN forces attempted to flee, isolated units fought desperately. ARVN general Phu abandoned Pleiku and Kon Tum and retreated toward the coast, in what became known as the "column of tears".[29]: 693–694  On 20 March, Thieu reversed himself and ordered Huế, Vietnam's third-largest city, be held at all costs, and then changed policy several times. As the PAVN launched their attack, panic set in, and ARVN resistance withered. On 22 March, the PAVN opened the siege of Huế. Civilians flooded the airport and docks hoping for escape. As resistance in Huế collapsed, PAVN rockets rained down on Da Nang and its airport. By 28 March 35,000 PAVN troops were poised to attack the suburbs. By 30 March 100,000 leaderless ARVN troops surrendered as the PAVN marched through Da Nang. With the fall of the city, the defense of the Central Highlands and Northern provinces ended.[29]: 699–700 

Final North Vietnamese offensive

With the north half of the country under their control, the Politburo ordered Dung to launch the final offensive against Saigon. The operational plan for the Ho Chi Minh Campaign called for Saigon's capture before 1 May. Hanoi wished to avoid the coming monsoon and prevent redeployment of ARVN forces defending the capital. Northern forces, their morale boosted by their recent victories, rolled on, taking Nha Trang, Cam Ranh and Da Lat.[29]: 702–704 

On 7 April, three PAVN divisions attacked Xuân Lộc, 40 miles (64 km) east of Saigon. For two bloody weeks, fighting raged as the ARVN defenders made a last stand to try to block PAVN advance. On 21 April, however, the exhausted garrison was ordered to withdraw towards Saigon.[29]: 704–707  An embittered and tearful president Thieu resigned, declaring that the US had betrayed South Vietnam. In a scathing attack, he suggested Kissinger had tricked him into signing the Paris peace agreement, promising military aid that failed to materialize. Having transferred power to Trần Văn Hương on 21 April, he left for Taiwan.[29]: 714  After having appealed unsuccessfully to Congress for $722 million in emergency aid for South Vietnam, President Ford gave a televised speech on 23 April, declaring an end to the War and US aid.[215][216]

By the end of April, the ARVN had collapsed except in the Mekong Delta. Refugees streamed southward, ahead of the main communist onslaught. On 27 April, 100,000 PAVN troops encircled Saigon. The city was defended by about 30,000 ARVN troops. To hasten a collapse and foment panic, the PAVN shelled Tan Son Nhut Airport and forced its closure. With the air exit closed, large numbers of civilians had no way out.[29]: 716 

Fall of Saigon

Victorious PAVN troops at the Presidential Palace, Saigon

Chaos and panic broke out as hysterical South Vietnamese officials and civilians scrambled to leave. Martial law was declared. American helicopters began evacuating South Vietnamese, US and foreign nationals from the city and the U.S. embassy compound. Operation Frequent Wind had been delayed until the last possible moment, because of Ambassador Graham Martin's belief Saigon could be held and a political settlement reached. Frequent Wind was the largest helicopter evacuation in history. It began on 29 April, in an atmosphere of desperation, as hysterical crowds of Vietnamese vied for limited space. Frequent Wind continued around the clock, as PAVN tanks breached defenses near Saigon. In the early morning of 30 April, the last US Marines evacuated the embassy by helicopter, as civilians swamped the perimeter and poured into the grounds.[29]: 718–720 

On 30 April 1975, PAVN troops entered Saigon and overcame all resistance, capturing key buildings and installations.[5] Tanks from the 2nd Corps crashed through the gates of the Independence Palace and the Viet Cong flag was raised above it.[217] President Dương Văn Minh, who had succeeded Huong two days earlier, surrendered to Lieutenant colonel Bùi Văn Tùng, political commissar of the 203rd Tank Brigade.[218][219][220]: 95–96  Minh was then escorted to Radio Saigon to announce the surrender declaration.[221]: 85  The statement was on air at 2:30 pm.[220]

Opposition to U.S. involvement

The March on the Pentagon, 21 October 1967, an anti-war demonstration organized by the National Mobilization Committee to End the War in Vietnam

During the course of the war a large segment of Americans became opposed to U.S. involvement. In January 1967, only 32% of Americans thought the US had made a mistake in sending troops.[222] Public opinion steadily turned against the war following 1967 and by 1970 only a third believed the U.S. had not made a mistake by sending troops.[223][224]

Early opposition to US involvement drew its inspiration from the Geneva Conference of 1954. American support of Diệm in refusing elections was seen as thwarting the democracy America claimed to support. Kennedy, while senator, opposed involvement.[145] It is possible to specify groups who led the anti-war movement at its peak in the late 1960s and the reasons why. Many young people protested because they were being drafted, while others were against because the anti-war movement grew popular among the counterculture. Some advocates within the peace movement advocated a unilateral withdrawal of forces. Opposition to the war tended to unite groups opposed to U.S. anti-communism and imperialism,[225] and for those involved with the New Left. Others, such as Stephen Spiro, opposed the war based on the theory of Just War. Some wanted to show solidarity with the people of Vietnam, such as Norman Morrison emulating Thích Quảng Đức.

High-profile opposition to the war increasingly turned to mass protests to shift public opinion. Riots broke out at the 1968 Democratic National Convention.[29]: 514  After reports of American military abuses, such as the My Lai Massacre, brought attention and support to the anti-war movement, some veterans joined Vietnam Veterans Against the War. On 15 October 1969, the Vietnam Moratorium attracted millions of Americans.[226] The fatal shooting of 4 students at Kent State University in 1970 led to nationwide university protests.[227] Anti-war protests declined after the Paris Peace Accords and the end of the draft in January 1973, and the withdrawal of American troops.

Involvement of other countries

Pro-Hanoi

People's Republic of China

China provided significant support for North Vietnam when the US started to intervene, including financial aid and the deployment of hundreds of thousands of military personnel in support roles. China said its military and economic aid to North Vietnam and the Viet Cong totaled $20 billion ($160 billion adjusted for 2022 prices) during the Vietnam War;[10] included were 5 million tons of food to North Vietnam (equivalent to a year's food production), accounting for 10–15% of their food supply by the 1970s.[10]

In the summer of 1962, Mao Zedong agreed to supply Hanoi with 90,000 rifles and guns free of charge, and starting in 1965, China began sending anti-aircraft units and engineering battalions, to repair the damage caused by American bombing. They helped man anti-aircraft batteries, rebuild roads and railroads, transport supplies, and perform other engineering works. This freed North Vietnamese army units for combat. China sent 320,000 troops and annual arms shipments worth $180 million.[228]: 135  China claims to have caused 38% of American air losses in the war.[10] The PRC also began financing the Khmer Rouge as a counterweight to North Vietnam. China "armed and trained" the Khmer Rouge during the civil war, and continued to aid them afterward.[229]

Soviet Union

Soviet anti-air instructors and North Vietnamese crewmen in the spring of 1965 at an anti-aircraft training center in Vietnam

The Soviet Union supplied North Vietnam with medical supplies, arms, tanks, planes, helicopters, artillery, anti-aircraft missiles and other military equipment. Soviet crews fired Soviet-made surface-to-air missiles at US aircraft in 1965.[230] Following the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, Russian officials acknowledged that the USSR had stationed up to 3,000 troops in Vietnam.[231]

According to Russian sources, between 1953 and 1991, the hardware donated by the Soviet Union included: 2,000 tanks; 1,700 APCs; 7,000 artillery guns; over 5,000 anti-aircraft guns; 158 surface-to-air missile launchers; and 120 helicopters. In total, the Soviets sent North Vietnam annual arms shipments worth $450 million.[232][29]: 364–371  From July 1965 to the end of 1974, fighting in Vietnam was observed by some 6,500 officers and generals, as well as more than 4,500 soldiers and sergeants of the Soviet Armed Forces, amounting to 11,000 military personnel.[233] The KGB helped develop the signals intelligence capabilities of the North Vietnamese.[234]

Pro-Saigon

As South Vietnam was formally part of a military alliance with the US, Australia, New Zealand, France, the UK, Pakistan, Thailand and the Philippines, the alliance was invoked during the war. The UK, France and Pakistan declined to participate, and South Korea, Taiwan, and Spain were non-treaty participants.

United Front for the Liberation of Oppressed Races

The ethnic minority peoples of South Vietnam, like the Montagnards in the Central Highlands, the Hindu and Muslim Cham, and the Buddhist Khmer Krom, were actively recruited in the war. There was a strategy of recruitment and favorable treatment of Montagnard tribes for the Viet Cong, as they were pivotal for control of infiltration routes.[235] Some groups split off and formed the United Front for the Liberation of Oppressed Races (FULRO) to fight for autonomy or independence. FULRO fought against the South Vietnamese and Viet Cong, later fighting against the unified Socialist Republic of Vietnam, after the fall of South Vietnam.

During the war, South Vietnamese president Diem began a program to settle ethnic Vietnamese Kinh on Montagnard lands in the Central Highlands region. This provoked a backlash from the Montagnards, some joining the Viet Cong as a result. The Cambodians under pro-China King Sihanouk and pro-American Lon Nol, supported their fellow co-ethnic Khmer Krom in South Vietnam, following an anti-ethnic Vietnamese policy. Following Vietnamization, many Montagnard groups and fighters were incorporated into the Vietnamese Rangers as border sentries.

War crimes

Many war crimes took place, by both sides, including: rape, massacres of civilians, bombings of civilian targets, terrorism, torture, and murder of prisoners of war. Additional common crimes included theft, arson, and the destruction of property not warranted by military necessity.[236]

South Vietnamese, Korean and American

Victims of the My Lai massacre

In 1968, the Vietnam War Crimes Working Group (VWCWG) was established by the Pentagon task force set up in the wake of the My Lai Massacre, to ascertain the veracity of emerging claims of US war crimes. Of the war crimes reported to military authorities, sworn statements by witnesses and status reports indicated 320 incidents had a factual basis.[237] The substantiated cases included 7 massacres between 1967 and 1971 in which at least 137 civilians were killed; 78 further attacks targeting non-combatants resulting in at least 57 deaths, 56 wounded and 15 sexually assaulted; and 141 cases of US soldiers torturing civilian detainees, or prisoners of war with fists, sticks, bats, water or electric shock. Journalists since have documented overlooked and uninvestigated war crimes, involving every active army division,[237] including atrocities committed by Tiger Force.[238] R. J. Rummel estimated that American forces committed around 5,500 democidal killings between 1960 and 1972.[34]

US forces established free-fire zones to prevent Viet Cong fighters from sheltering in South Vietnamese villages.[239] Such practice, which involved the assumption that anyone appearing in the designated zones was an enemy combatant that could be freely targeted by weapons, is regarded by journalist Lewis Simons as "a severe violation of the laws of war".[240] Nick Turse argues that a relentless drive toward higher body counts, widespread use of free-fire zones, rules of engagement where civilians who ran from soldiers or helicopters could be viewed as Viet Cong and disdain for Vietnamese civilians, led to massive civilian casualties and war crimes inflicted by US troops.[241]: 251  One example cited by Turse is Operation Speedy Express, which was described by John Paul Vann as, in effect, "many Mỹ Lais".[241]: 251  A report by Newsweek magazine suggested that at least 5,000 civilians may have been killed during six months of the operation, and there were 748 recovered weapons and an official US military body count of 10,889 enemy combatants killed.[242]

"The Terror of War" by Nick Ut, which won the 1973 Pulitzer Prize for Spot News Photography, showing a nine-year-old girl running down a road after being severely burned by napalm.

Rummel estimated that 39,000 were killed by South Vietnam during the Diem-era in democide; for 1964–75, Rummel estimated 50,000 people were killed in democide. Thus, the total for 1954 to 1975 is about 80,000 deaths caused by South Vietnam.[34] Benjamin Valentino estimates 110,000–310,000 deaths as a "possible case" of "counter-guerrilla mass killings" by US and South Vietnamese forces.[243] The Phoenix Program, coordinated by the CIA and involving US and South Vietnamese security forces, was aimed at destroying the political infrastructure of the Viet Cong. The program killed 26,000 to 41,000 people, with an unknown number being innocent civilians.[157]: 341–343 [244][245][246]

Torture and ill-treatment were frequently applied by the South Vietnamese to POWs, as well as civilian prisoners.[247]: 77  During their visit to the Con Son Prison in 1970, US congressmen Augustus Hawkins and William R. Anderson witnessed detainees either confined in minute "tiger cages" or chained to their cells, and provided with poor-quality food. American doctors inspecting the prison found many inmates suffering symptoms resulting from forced immobility and torture.[247]: 77  During their visits to US detention facilities in 1968 and 1969, the International Red Cross recorded many cases of torture and inhumane treatment before the captives were handed over to South Vietnamese authorities.[247]: 78  Torture was conducted by the South Vietnamese government in collusion with the CIA.[248][249]

South Korean forces were accused of war crimes. One documented event was the Phong Nhị and Phong Nhất massacre where the 2nd Marine Brigade reportedly killed between 69 and 79 civilians on 12 February 1968 in Phong Nhị and Phong Nhất village, Điện Bàn District.[250] South Korean forces are accused of perpetrating other massacres: Bình Hòa massacre, Binh Tai Massacre and Hà My massacre.

North Vietnamese and Viet Cong

Interment of victims of the Huế Massacre

Ami Pedahzur has written that "the overall volume and lethality of Viet Cong terrorism rivals or exceeds all but a handful of terrorist campaigns waged over the last third of the twentieth century", based on the definition of terrorists as a non-state actor, and examining targeted killings and civilian deaths which are estimated at over 18,000 from 1966 to 1969.[251] The US Department of Defense estimates the VC/PAVN had conducted 36,000 murders and 58,000 kidnappings from 1967 to 1972, c. 1973.[252] Benjamin Valentino attributes 45,000–80,000 "terrorist mass killings" to the Viet Cong.[243] Statistics for 1968–1972 suggest "about 80 percent of the terrorist victims were ordinary civilians and only about 20 percent were government officials, policemen, members of the self-defence forces or pacification cadres."[23]: 273  Viet Cong tactics included frequent mortaring of civilians in refugee camps, and placing of mines on highways frequented by villagers taking goods to urban markets. Some mines were set only to go off after heavy vehicle passage, causing slaughter aboard packed civilian buses.[23]: 270–279 

Notable Viet Cong atrocities include the massacre of over 3,000 unarmed civilians at Huế[253] during the Tet Offensive and the killing of 252 civilians during the Đắk Sơn massacre.[254] 155,000 refugees fleeing the final North Vietnamese Spring Offensive were reported to have been killed, or abducted, on the road to Tuy Hòa in 1975.[255] PAVN and Viet Cong troops killed 164,000 civilians in democide between 1954 and 1975 in South Vietnam.[34] North Vietnam was known for its abusive treatment of American POWs, most notably in Hỏa Lò Prison (the Hanoi Hilton), where torture was employed to extract confessions.[93]: 655 

Women

A nurse treats a Vietnamese child, 1967

Women were active in a large variety of roles, making significant impacts and the war having significant impacts on them.[256][257][258] Several million Vietnamese women served in the military and in militias, particularly in the Viet Cong, with the slogan "when war comes, even the women must fight" being widely used.[259] These women made vital contributions on the Ho Chi Minh trail, espionage, medical care, logistical and administrative work, and sometimes direct combat.[260][261] Women workers took on more roles in the economy and Vietnam saw an increase in women's rights.[262] In Vietnam and elsewhere, women emerged as leaders of anti-war peace campaigns and made significant contributions to war journalism.[263]

However, women still faced significant levels of discrimination during and were often targets of sexual violence and war crimes.[264] Post-war, some Vietnamese women veterans faced difficulty reintegrating into society and having their contributions recognised, as well as advances in women's rights failing to be sustained.[265][266] Portrayals of the war have been criticised for their depictions of women, both for overlooking the role women played and reducing Vietnamese women to racist stereotypes.[267][268] Women are at the forefront of campaigns to deal with the war's aftermath, such as the long-terms effect of Agent Orange use and the Lai Đại Hàn.[269][270][271]

Black servicemen

A wounded African-American soldier being carried away, 1968

The experience of African-American military personnel has received significant attention. The site "African-American Involvement in the Vietnam War" compiles examples,[272] as does the work of journalist Wallace Terry whose book Bloods: An Oral History of the Vietnam War by Black Veterans, includes observations about the impact on the black community and black servicemen. He notes: the higher proportion of combat casualties among African-American servicemen than other races, the shift toward and different attitudes of black military volunteers and conscripts, the discrimination encountered by black servicemen "on the battlefield in decorations, promotion and duty assignments", as well as having to endure "the racial insults, cross-burnings and Confederate flags of their white comrades"—and the experiences faced by black soldiers stateside, during the war and after withdrawal.[273]

Civil rights leaders protested the disproportionate casualties and overrepresentation in hazardous duty, experienced by African American servicemen, prompting reforms that were implemented beginning in 1967. As a result, by the war's completion in 1975, black casualties had declined to 13% of US combat deaths, approximately equal to percentage of draft-eligible black men, though still slightly higher than the 10% who served in the military.[274]

Weapons

Guerrillas assemble shells and rockets delivered along the Ho Chi Minh Trail.

Nearly all US-allied forces were armed with US weapons including the M1 Garand, M1 carbine, M14 rifle, and M16 rifle. The Australian and New Zealand forces employed the 7.62 mm L1A1 Self-Loading Rifle, with occasional use of the M16 rifle.

The PAVN, although having inherited US, French, and Japanese weapons from World War II and the First Indochina War, were largely armed and supplied by China, the Soviet Union, and its Warsaw Pact allies. Some weapons—notably anti-personnel explosives, the K-50M, and "home-made" versions of the RPG-2—were manufactured in North Vietnam. By 1969 the US Army had identified 40 rifle/carbine types, 22 machine gun types, 17 types of mortar, 20 recoilless rifle or rocket launcher types, 9 types of antitank weapons, and 14 anti-aircraft artillery weapons used by ground troops on all sides. Also in use, mostly by anti-communist forces, were 24 types of armored vehicles and self-propelled artillery, and 26 types of field artillery and rocket launchers.

Extent of U.S. bombings

The US dropped over 7 million tons of bombs on Indochina during the war, more than triple the 2.1 million tons it dropped on Europe and Asia during World War II, and more than ten times the amount during the Korean War. 500 thousand tons were dropped on Cambodia, 1 million tons on North Vietnam, and 4 million tons on South Vietnam. On a per person basis, the 2 million tons dropped on Laos make it the most heavily bombed country in history; The New York Times noted this was "nearly a ton for every person in Laos."[143] Due to the particularly heavy impact of cluster bombs, Laos was a strong advocate of the Convention on Cluster Munitions to ban the weapons, and was host to its first meeting in 2010.[275]

Former US Air Force official Earl Tilford recounted "repeated bombing runs of a lake in central Cambodia. The B-52s literally dropped their payloads in the lake." The Air Force ran many missions like this to secure additional funding during budget negotiations, so the tonnage expended does not directly correlate with the resulting damage.[276]

Casualties

Estimates of casualties vary, with one source suggesting up to 3.8 million violent war deaths in Vietnam for 1955 to 2002.[278][279][280][8] A demographic study calculated 791,000–1,141,000 war-related deaths during the war for all of Vietnam, for military and civilians.[22] Between 195,000 and 430,000 South Vietnamese civilians died in the war.[23]: 450–453 [33] Extrapolating from a 1969 US intelligence report, Guenter Lewy estimated 65,000 North Vietnamese civilians died.[23]: 450–453  Estimates of civilian deaths caused by American bombing of North Vietnam range from 30,000[11]: 176, 617  to 182,000.[24] A 1975 US Senate subcommittee estimated 1.4 million South Vietnamese civilians casualties during the war, including 415,000 deaths.[241]: 12  The military of South Vietnam suffered an estimated 254,256 killed between 1960 and 1974, and additional deaths from 1954 to 1959 and in 1975.[35]: 275  Other estimates point to higher figures of 313,000 casualties.[86][52][22][53][54][55]

The official US Department of Defense figure for PAVN/VC killed in Vietnam from 1965 to 1974 was 950,765. Officials believed these body count figures need to be deflated by 30 percent. Guenter Lewy asserts that one-third of the reported "enemy" killed may have been civilians, concluding that the actual number of deaths of PAVN/VC military forces was probably closer to 444,000.[23]: 450–453 

According to figures released by the Vietnamese government there were 849,018 confirmed military deaths on the PAVN/VC side.[26][27] The Vietnamese government released its estimate of war deaths for the more lengthy period of 1955 to 1975. This figure includes battle deaths of Vietnamese soldiers in the Laotian and Cambodian Civil Wars, in which the PAVN was a major participant. Non-combat deaths account for 30-40% of these.[26] However, the figures do not include deaths of South Vietnamese and allied soldiers.[51] These do not include the estimated 300,000–500,000 PAVN/VC missing in action. Vietnamese government figures estimate 1.1 million dead and 300,000 missing from 1945 to 1979, with approximately 849,000 dead and 232,000 missing from 1960 to 1975.[25]

US reports of "enemy KIA", referred to as body count, were thought to have been subject to "falsification and glorification", and a true estimate of PAVN/VC combat deaths is difficult to assess, as US victories were assessed by having a "greater kill ratio".[281][282] It was difficult to distinguish between civilians and military personnel in the Viet Cong, as many were part-time guerrillas or impressed laborers who did not wear uniforms[283][284] and civilians killed were sometimes written off as enemy killed, because high enemy casualties was directly tied to promotions and commendation.[185]: 649–650 [285][286]

Between 275,000[54] and 310,000[55] Cambodians were estimated to have died, including between 50,000 and 150,000 combatants and civilians from US bombings.[287] 20,000–62,000 Laotians died,[52] and 58,281 U.S. military personnel were killed,[37] of which 1,584 are still listed as missing as of March 2021.[288]

Aftermath

In Southeast Asia

In Vietnam

B-52 wreckage in Huu Tiep Lake, Hanoi. Downed during Operation Linebacker II, its remains have been turned into a war monument.

On 2 July 1976, North and South Vietnam were merged to form the Socialist Republic of Vietnam.[289] Despite speculation that the victorious North Vietnamese would, in Nixon's words, "massacre the civilians there [South Vietnam] by the millions," no mass executions took place.[290][A 12]

Vietnamese refugees fleeing Vietnam, 1984

However many South Vietnamese were sent to re-education camps where they endured torture, starvation, and disease while being forced to perform hard labor.[293][294] According to Amnesty International, this figure varied depending on different observers: "... "50,000 to 80,000" (Le Monde, April 1978), "150,000" (Reuters from Bien Hoa, November 1977), "150,000 to 200,000" (The Washington Post, December 1978), and "300,000" (Agence France Presse from Hanoi, February 1978)."[295] Such variations are because "Some estimates may include not only detainees but also people sent from the cities to the countryside." According to a native observer, 443,360 people had to register for a period in re-education camps in Saigon alone, and while some were released after a few days, others stayed for more than a decade.[296] Between 1975 and 1980, more than 1 million northerners migrated south, to regions formerly in the Republic of Vietnam, while, as part of the New Economic Zones program, around 750,000 to over 1 million southerners were moved mostly to mountainous forested areas.[297][298] Gabriel García Márquez, a Nobel Prize winning writer, described South Vietnam as a "False paradise" after the war, when he visited in 1980:

The cost of this delirium was stupefying: 360,000 people mutilated, a million widows, 500,000 prostitutes, 500,000 drug addicts, a million tuberculous and more than a million soldiers of the old regime, impossible to rehabilitate into a new society. Ten percent of the population of Ho Chi Minh City was suffering from serious venereal diseases when the war ended, and there were 4 million illiterates throughout the South.[299]

The US used its security council veto to block Vietnam's UN recognition three times, an obstacle to it receiving international aid.[300]

Laos and Cambodia

By 1975, the North Vietnamese had lost influence over the Khmer Rouge.[29]: 708  Phnom Penh, Cambodia's capital, fell to the Khmer Rouge in April 1975. Under Pol Pot, the Khmer Rouge would kill 1–3 million Cambodians out of a population of around 8 million, in one of the bloodiest genocides ever.[53][301][302][303]

The relationship between Vietnam and Democratic Kampuchea (Cambodia) escalated after the end of the war. In response to the Khmer Rouge taking over Phu Quoc and Tho Chu, and the belief they were responsible for the disappearance of 500 Vietnamese natives on Tho Chu, Vietnam launched a counterattack to take back these islands.[304] After failed attempts to negotiate, Vietnam invaded Democratic Kampuchea in 1978 and ousted the Khmer Rouge, who were being supported by China, in the Cambodian–Vietnamese War. In response, China invaded Vietnam in 1979. The two countries fought a border war: the Sino-Vietnamese War. From 1978 to 1979, some 450,000 ethnic Chinese left Vietnam by boat as refugees or were deported.

The Pathet Lao overthrew the monarchy of Laos in December 1975, establishing the Lao People's Democratic Republic. The change in regime was "quite peaceful, a sort of Asiatic 'velvet revolution'"—although 30,000 former officials were sent to reeducation camps, often enduring harsh conditions.[96]: 575–576 

Unexploded ordnance

Unexploded ordnance, mostly from US bombing, continues to kill people, and has rendered much land hazardous and impossible to cultivate. Ordnance has killed 42,000 people since the war ended.[305][306] In Laos, 80 million bombs failed to explode and still remain. Unexploded ordnance has killed or injured over 20,000 Laotians since the war and about 50 people are killed or maimed annually.[307][308] It is estimated the explosives buried will not be removed entirely for centuries.[162]: 317 

Refugee crisis

Over 3 million people left Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia in the Indochina refugee crisis after 1975. Most Asian countries were unwilling to accept them, many of whom fled by boat and were known as boat people.[309] Between 1975 and 1998, an estimated 1.2 million refugees from Vietnam and other Southeast Asian countries resettled in the US, while Canada, Australia, and France resettled over 500,000, China accepted 250,000 people.[310] Laos experienced the largest refugee flight proportionally, 300,000 out of a population of 3 million crossed the border into Thailand. Included among their ranks were "about 90%" of Laos' "intellectuals, technicians, and officials."[96]: 575  An estimated 200,000 to 400,000 Vietnamese boat people died at sea, according to the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees.[311]

In the United States

A young Marine private waits on the beach during the Marine landing, Da Nang, 3 August 1965

Failure of US goals is often placed at different institutions and levels. Some have suggested it was due to political failures of leadership.[312] Others point to a failure of military doctrine. Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara stated that "the achievement of a military victory by U.S. forces in Vietnam was indeed a dangerous illusion."[82]: 368  The inability to bring Hanoi to the bargaining table by bombing illustrated another US miscalculation, and the limitations of military abilities in achieving political goals.[93]: 17  Army Chief of Staff Harold Keith Johnson noted, "if anything came out of Vietnam, it was that air power couldn't do the job."[313] General William Westmoreland admitted bombing had been ineffective, saying he doubted "that the North Vietnamese would have relented."[313] Kissinger wrote in a memo to President Ford that "in terms of military tactics ... our armed forces are not suited to this kind of war. Even the Special Forces who had been designed for it could not prevail."[314] Hanoi had persistently sought unification since the Geneva Accords, and the effects of US bombing had negligible impact on North Vietnam's goals.[162]: 1–10  US bombing mobilized people throughout North Vietnam and international support, due to the perception of a superpower attempting to bomb a significantly smaller, agrarian society into submission.[162]: 48–52 

In the post-war era, Americans struggled to absorb the lessons of the military intervention. President Ronald Reagan coined the term "Vietnam Syndrome" to describe the reluctance of the American public and politicians to support military interventions abroad. US polling in 1978 revealed nearly 72% of Americans believed the war was "fundamentally wrong and immoral."[224]: 10  Six months after the beginning of Operation Rolling Thunder, Gallup, Inc. found 60% of Americans did not believe that sending troops to Vietnam was a mistake in September 1965, and only 24% believed it was. Subsequent polling did not find that a plurality of Americans believed that sending troops was a mistake until October 1967, and did not find a majority believing it was until August 1968, during the third phase of the Tet Offensive. Thereafter, Gallup found majorities believing sending troops was a mistake through the signing of the Peace Accords in January 1973, when 60% believed sending troops was a mistake, and retrospective polls by Gallup between 1990 and 2000, found 69-74% of Americans believed sending troops was a mistake.[315] The Vietnam War POW/MIA issue, concerning the fate of US service personnel listed as missing in action, persisted for years afterwards. The costs loom large in American consciousness; a 1990 poll showed the public incorrectly believed more Americans died in Vietnam than World War II.[316]

Financial cost

Between 1953 and 1975, the US was estimated to have spent $168 billion on the war (equivalent to $1.7 trillion in 2023).[318] This resulted in a large budget deficit. Other figures point to $139 billion from 1965 to 1974 (not inflation-adjusted), 10 times all education spending in the US, and 50 times more than housing and community development spending within that period.[319] It was stated that war-spending could have paid off every mortgage in the US, with money leftover.[319] As of 2013, the US government pays Vietnam veterans and their families more than $22 billion a year in war-related claims.[320][321]

Impact on the U.S. military

A marine gets his wounds treated during operations in Huế City, in 1968

More than 3 million Americans served in the war, 1.5 million of whom saw combat.[322] James Westheider wrote that "At the height of American involvement in 1968, for example, 543,000 American military personnel were stationed in Vietnam, but only 80,000 were considered combat troops."[323] Conscription in the US existed since World War II, but ended in 1973.[324][325]

58,220 American soldiers were killed,[A 7] more than 150,000 wounded, and at least 21,000 permanently disabled.[326] The average age of US troops killed was 23.[327] According to Dale Kueter, "Of those killed in combat, 86% were white, 13% were black..."[43] Approximately 830,000 veterans, 15%, suffered posttraumatic stress disorder.[326] This unprecedented number was because the military had routinely provided heavy psychoactive drugs to servicemen, which left them unable to process trauma.[328] Drug use, racial tensions, and the growing incidence of fragging—attempting to kill unpopular officers with grenades or other weapons—created problems for the military and impacted its capability to undertake operations.[329]: 44–47  125,000 Americans left for Canada to avoid the draft,[330] and approximately 50,000 servicemen deserted.[331] In 1977, President Jimmy Carter granted an unconditional pardon to all Vietnam-era draft evaders with Proclamation 4483.[332]

The war called into question army doctrine. Marine general Victor H. Krulak criticized Westmoreland's attrition strategy, calling it "wasteful of American lives ... with small likelihood of a successful outcome."[313] Doubts surfaced about the ability of the military to train foreign forces. There was found to be considerable flaws and dishonesty by commanders, due to promotions being tied to the body count system touted by Westmoreland and McNamara.[153] Secretary of Defense McNamara wrote to President Johnson his doubts: "The picture of the world's greatest superpower killing or seriously injuring 1,000 noncombatants a week, while trying to pound a tiny backward nation into submission on an issue whose merits are hotly disputed, is not a pretty one."[333]

Effects of U.S. chemical defoliation

U.S. helicopter spraying chemical defoliants in the Mekong Delta, South Vietnam, 1969

One of the most controversial aspects of the US military effort, was the widespread use of chemical defoliants between 1961 and 1971. 20 million gallons of toxic herbicides (like Agent Orange) were sprayed on 6 million acres of forests and crops by the air force.[64] They were used to defoliate large parts of the countryside to prevent the Viet Cong from being able to hide weaponry and encampments under the foliage, and deprive them of food. Defoliation was used to clear sensitive areas, including base perimeters and possible ambush sites along roads and canals. More than 20% of South Vietnam's forests and 3% of its cultivated land was sprayed at least once. 90% of herbicide use was directed at forest defoliation.[23]: 263  The chemicals used continue to change the landscape, cause diseases and birth defects, and poison the food chain.[334][335] US military records have listed figures including the destruction of 20% of the jungles of South Vietnam and 20-36% of the mangrove forests.[63] The environmental destruction caused was described by Swedish Prime Minister Olof Palme, lawyers, historians and other academics as an ecocide.[65][336][61][337][62][338]

Agent Orange and similar chemical substances used by the US have caused many deaths and injuries in the intervening years, including among the US Air Force crews that handled them. Scientific reports have concluded that refugees exposed to chemical sprays while in South Vietnam continued to experience pain in the eyes and skin as well as gastrointestinal upsets. In one study, 92% of participants suffered incessant fatigue; others reported monstrous births.[339] Analysis of studies on the association between Agent Orange and birth defects, have found a statistically significant correlation such that having a parent who was exposed to Agent Orange at any point, will increase one's likelihood of possessing or acting as a genetic carrier of birth defects.[340] The most common deformity appears to be spina bifida. There is substantial evidence that birth defects carry on for three generations or more.[341] In 2012, the US and Vietnam began a cooperative cleaning toxic chemicals on Danang International Airport, marking the first time Washington has been involved in cleaning up Agent Orange in Vietnam.[342]

Handicapped children in Vietnam, most of them victims of Agent Orange, 2004

Vietnamese victims affected by Agent Orange attempted a class action lawsuit against Dow Chemical and other US chemical manufacturers, but a US District Court dismissed their case.[343] They appealed, but the dismissal was cemented in 2008 by an appeals court.[344] As of 2006, the Vietnamese government estimated there were over 4,000,000 victims of dioxin poisoning in Vietnam, although the US government denies any conclusive scientific links between Agent Orange and Vietnamese victims of dioxin poisoning. In some areas of southern Vietnam, dioxin levels remain at over 100 times the accepted international standard.[345] On 22 August 2024, the Paris Court of Appeals is expected to rule on the lawsuit filed by Tran To Nga against 14 US chemical corporations that supplied Agent Orange for the US military.[346]

The U.S. Veterans Administration has listed prostate cancer, respiratory cancers, multiple myeloma, Diabetes mellitus type 2, B-cell lymphomas, soft-tissue sarcoma, chloracne, porphyria cutanea tarda, peripheral neuropathy as, "presumptive diseases associated with exposure to Agent Orange or other herbicides during military service."[347] Spina bifida is the sole birth defect in children of veterans, recognized as being caused by exposure to Agent Orange.[348]

In popular culture

Stone plaque with photo of the "Thương tiếc" (Mourning Soldier) statue, originally, installed at the Republic of Vietnam National Military Cemetery. The original statue was demolished in April 1975.

The war has featured extensively in television, film, video games, music and literature. In Vietnam, a notable film set during Operation Linebacker II was Girl from Hanoi (1974) depicting war-time life. Another notable work was the diary of Đặng Thùy Trâm, a North Vietnamese doctor who enlisted in the Southern battlefield, and was killed aged 27 by US forces near Quảng Ngãi. Her diaries were published in Vietnam as Đặng Thùy Trâm's Diary (Last Night I Dreamed of Peace), where it became a bestseller and was made into a film Don't Burn. In Vietnam, the diary has been compared to The Diary of Anne Frank, and both are used in literary education.[349]

One of the first major films based on the war was John Wayne's pro-war The Green Berets (1968). Further cinematic representations were released during the 1970s and 1980s, the most noteworthy examples being Michael Cimino's The Deer Hunter (1978), Francis Ford Coppola's Apocalypse Now (1979), Oliver Stone's Platoon (1986) and Stanley Kubrick's Full Metal Jacket (1987). Other films include Good Morning, Vietnam (1987), Casualties of War (1989), Born on the Fourth of July (1989), Forrest Gump (1994), We Were Soldiers (2002), and Rescue Dawn (2007).[11]

The war influenced a generation of musicians and songwriters in Vietnam, the US, and elsewhere, both pro/anti-war and pro/anti-communist, with the Vietnam War Song Project having identified 5,000+ songs referencing the conflict.[350] The band Country Joe and the Fish recorded The "Fish" Cheer/I-Feel-Like-I'm-Fixin'-to-Die Rag in 1965, and it became one of the most influential protest anthems.[11]

Myths

Myths play a role in the historiography of the war, and have become part of the culture of the United States. Discussion of myth has focused on US experiences, but changing myths of war have played a role in Vietnamese and Australian historiography. Scholarship has focused on "myth-busting",[351]: 373  attacking orthodox and revisionist schools of American historiography, and challenging myths about American society and soldiery in the war.[351]: 373 

Kuzmarov in The Myth of the Addicted Army: Vietnam and the Modern War on Drugs challenges the popular and Hollywood narrative that US soldiers were heavy drug users,[352] in particular the notion that the My Lai massacre was caused by drug use.[351]: 373  According to Kuzmarov, Nixon is primarily responsible for creating the drug myth.[351]: 374  Michael Allen in Until The Last Man Comes Home accuses Nixon of mythmaking, by exploiting the plight of the National League of POW/MIA Families to allow the government to appear caring, as the war was increasingly considered lost.[351]: 376  Allen's analysis ties the position of potential missing Americans, or prisoners into post-war politics and presidential elections, including the Swift boat controversy.[351]: 376–377 

Commemoration

On 25 May 2012, President Barack Obama issued a proclamation of the commemoration of the 50th Anniversary of the Vietnam War.[353][354] On 10 November 2017, President Donald Trump issued an additional proclamation commemorating the 50th Anniversary of the Vietnam War.[355][356]

See also

Annotations

  1. ^ a b Due to the early presence of US troops in Vietnam, the start date of the Vietnam War is a matter of debate. In 1998, after a high-level review by the Department of Defense (DoD) and through the efforts of Richard B. Fitzgibbon's family, the start date of the Vietnam War according to the US government was officially changed to 1 November 1955.[1] US government reports currently cite 1 November 1955 as the commencement date of the "Vietnam Conflict", because this date marked when the US Military Assistance Advisory Group (MAAG) in Indochina (deployed to Southeast Asia under President Truman) was reorganized into country-specific units and MAAG Vietnam was established.[2]: 20  Other start dates include when Hanoi authorized Viet Cong forces in South Vietnam to begin a low-level insurgency in December 1956,[3] whereas some view 26 September 1959, when the first battle occurred between the Viet Cong and the South Vietnamese army, as the start date.[4]
  2. ^ 1955–1963
  3. ^ 1963–1969
  4. ^ 1964–1968
  5. ^ According to Hanoi's official history, the Viet Cong was a branch of the People's Army of Vietnam.[6]
  6. ^ Upper figure initial estimate, later thought to be inflated by at least 30% (lower figure)[22][23]: 450–453 
  7. ^ a b c The figures of 58,220 and 303,644 for US deaths and wounded come from the Department of Defense Statistical Information Analysis Division (SIAD), Defense Manpower Data Center, as well as from a Department of Veterans fact sheet dated May 2010; the total is 153,303 WIA excluding 150,341 persons not requiring hospital care[40] the CRS (Congressional Research Service) Report for Congress, American War and Military Operations Casualties: Lists and Statistics, dated 26 February 2010,[41] and the book Crucible Vietnam: Memoir of an Infantry Lieutenant.[2]: 65, 107, 154, 217  Some other sources give different figures (e.g. the 2005/2006 documentary Heart of Darkness: The Vietnam War Chronicles 1945–1975 cited elsewhere in this article gives a figure of 58,159 US deaths,[42] and the 2007 book Vietnam Sons gives a figure of 58,226)[43]
  8. ^ Prior to this, the Military Assistance Advisory Group, Indochina (with an authorized strength of 128 men) was set up in September 1950 with a mission to oversee the use and distribution of US military equipment by the French and their allies.
  9. ^ Shortly after the assassination of Kennedy, when McGeorge Bundy called Johnson on the phone, Johnson responded: "Goddammit, Bundy. I've told you that when I want you I'll call you."[133]
  10. ^ On 8 March 1965 the first American combat troops, the Third Marine Regiment, Third Marine Division, began landing in Vietnam to protect the Da Nang Air Base.[202][203]
  11. ^ They were: Senators John C. Stennis (MS) and Richard B. Russell Jr. (GA) and Representatives Lucius Mendel Rivers (SC), Gerald R. Ford (MI) and Leslie C. Arends (IL). Arends and Ford were leaders of the Republican minority and the other three were Democrats on either the Armed Services or Appropriations committees.
  12. ^ A study by Jacqueline Desbarats and Karl D. Jackson estimated that 65,000 South Vietnamese were executed for political reasons between 1975 and 1983, based on a survey of 615 Vietnamese refugees who claimed to have personally witnessed 47 executions. However, "their methodology was reviewed and criticized as invalid by authors Gareth Porter and James Roberts." Sixteen of the 47 names used to extrapolate this "bloodbath" were duplicates; this extremely high duplication rate (34%) strongly suggests Desbarats and Jackson were drawing from a small number of total executions. Rather than arguing that this duplication rate proves there were very few executions in post-war Vietnam, Porter and Roberts suggest it is an artifact of the self-selected nature of the participants in the Desbarats-Jackson study, as the authors followed subjects' recommendations on other refugees to interview.[291] Nevertheless, there exist unverified reports of mass executions.[292]

References

The references for this article are grouped in three sections.

Citations

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Works cited

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Additional sources

Historiography

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