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Control fronterizo

La puerta fronteriza entre Phuentsholing , Bután, y Jaigaon , India
Las diferentes categorías de fronteras tienen distintas características y niveles de seguridad.

El control fronterizo comprende las medidas que adoptan los gobiernos para supervisar [1] y regular el movimiento de personas, animales y mercancías a través de las fronteras terrestres, aéreas y marítimas . Si bien el control fronterizo suele asociarse con las fronteras internacionales, también abarca los controles impuestos en las fronteras internas de un mismo Estado.

Las medidas de control fronterizo tienen diversos propósitos, desde hacer cumplir las normas aduaneras, sanitarias y fitosanitarias o de bioseguridad hasta restringir la migración . Si bien algunas fronteras (incluidas las fronteras internas de la mayoría de los estados y las fronteras internacionales dentro del Espacio Schengen ) están abiertas y completamente desprotegidas, otras (incluida la gran mayoría de las fronteras entre países, así como algunas fronteras internas) están sujetas a cierto grado de control y solo se pueden cruzar legalmente en los puestos de control designados. Los controles fronterizos en el siglo XXI están estrechamente entrelazados con intrincados sistemas de documentos de viaje, visas y políticas cada vez más complejas que varían entre países.

Se estima que el costo económico indirecto de los controles fronterizos, en particular las restricciones migratorias, asciende a muchos billones de dólares y el tamaño de la economía mundial podría duplicarse si se levantaran las restricciones migratorias. [2]

Historia

El propósito de la Gran Muralla China era evitar que los "bárbaros" cruzaran la frontera norte de China.

Los Estados y gobernantes siempre han considerado la capacidad de determinar quién entra o permanece en sus territorios como una prueba clave de su soberanía, pero antes de la Primera Guerra Mundial , los controles fronterizos solo se implementaban esporádicamente. [3] En la Europa medieval, por ejemplo, las fronteras entre países rivales y centros de poder eran en gran medida simbólicas o consistían en fronteras amorfas, "marcas" y "tierras discutibles" de estatus indeterminado o disputado y las "fronteras" reales consistían en los muros fortificados que rodeaban pueblos y ciudades, donde las autoridades podían excluir a las personas indeseables o incompatibles en las puertas, desde vagabundos, mendigos y "pobres errantes", hasta "mujeres sin amo", leprosos, romaníes o judíos. [4]

Papiro árabe con un permiso de salida, fechado el 24 de enero del año 722 d. C., que indica la regulación de las actividades de viaje. Procedente de Hermópolis Magna, Egipto
Pasaporte chino de la dinastía Qing , año 24 del reinado de Guangxu, 1898

El concepto de controles fronterizos tiene sus orígenes en la antigüedad. En Asia, la existencia de controles fronterizos se evidencia en textos clásicos. El Arthashastra ( c.  siglo III a. C. ) menciona pases emitidos a razón de un masha por pase para entrar y salir del país. El capítulo 34 del Segundo Libro del Arthashastra trata de los deberes del Mudrādhyakṣa ( lit. ' Superintendente de Sellos ' ) que debe emitir pases sellados antes de que una persona pueda entrar o salir del campo. [5] Los pasaportes similares a los emitidos hoy eran una parte importante de la burocracia china ya en la dinastía Han Occidental (202 a. C.-220 d. C.), si no en la dinastía Qin . Requerían detalles como la edad, la altura y las características corporales. [6] Estos pasaportes ( zhuan ) determinaban la capacidad de una persona para moverse por los condados imperiales y a través de los puntos de control. Incluso los niños necesitaban pasaportes, pero aquellos de un año o menos que estaban al cuidado de su madre tal vez no los necesitaran. [6]

Periodo medieval

En el califato islámico medieval , una forma de pasaporte era la bara'a , un recibo por los impuestos pagados. Los controles fronterizos se aplicaban para garantizar que solo las personas que pagaban sus impuestos zakat (para los musulmanes ) o jizya (para los dhimmis ) pudieran viajar libremente entre las diferentes regiones del califato; por lo tanto, el recibo bara'a era un "pasaporte básico". [7]

En la Europa medieval, los pasaportes se emitieron al menos desde el reinado de Enrique V de Inglaterra , como un medio para ayudar a sus súbditos a demostrar quiénes eran en tierras extranjeras. La primera referencia a estos documentos se encuentra en una ley del Parlamento de 1414. [8] [9] En 1540, la concesión de documentos de viaje en Inglaterra se convirtió en una función del Consejo Privado de Inglaterra , y fue en esta época cuando se utilizó el término "pasaporte". En 1794, la emisión de pasaportes británicos pasó a ser tarea de la Oficina del Secretario de Estado . [8] La Dieta Imperial de Augsburgo de 1548 exigió al público poseer documentos imperiales para viajar, bajo el riesgo de exilio permanente. [10] Durante la Primera Guerra Mundial, los gobiernos europeos introdujeron requisitos de pasaporte fronterizo por razones de seguridad y para controlar la emigración de personas con habilidades útiles. Estos controles se mantuvieron vigentes después de la guerra, convirtiéndose en un procedimiento estándar, aunque controvertido. Los turistas británicos de la década de 1920 se quejaron, especialmente, de las fotografías adjuntas y las descripciones físicas, que consideraban que conducían a una "desagradable deshumanización". [11]

A partir de mediados del siglo XIX, el Imperio otomano estableció estaciones de cuarentena en muchas de sus fronteras para controlar las enfermedades. Por ejemplo, a lo largo de la frontera entre Grecia y Turquía, todos los viajeros que entraban y salían del Imperio otomano debían permanecer en cuarentena durante 9 a 15 días. Estas estaciones solían estar atendidas por guardias armados. Si aparecía la peste, se desplegaba el ejército otomano para hacer cumplir el control fronterizo y monitorear las enfermedades . [12]

Historia moderna

Uno de los primeros intentos sistemáticos de los estados-nación modernos de implementar controles fronterizos para restringir la entrada de grupos particulares fueron las políticas adoptadas por Canadá, Australia y Estados Unidos para restringir la inmigración de asiáticos en los estados de colonos blancos a fines del siglo XIX y principios del XX. La primera política antiasiática implementada en esta era fue la Ley de Exclusión China de 1882 en Estados Unidos, a la que siguió la Ley de Inmigración China de 1885 en Canadá, que impuso lo que llegó a llamarse el impuesto por habitante chino . Estas políticas fueron una señal de injusticia y trato injusto para los trabajadores chinos porque los trabajos que realizaban eran en su mayoría trabajos serviles. [13] Políticas similares fueron adoptadas en varias colonias británicas en Australia durante la segunda mitad del siglo XIX dirigidas a los inmigrantes asiáticos que llegaban como resultado de la serie de fiebres del oro de la región [14] así como a los Kanakas (isleños del Pacífico traídos a Australia como trabajadores contratados) [15] quienes junto con los asiáticos eran percibidos por los sindicalistas y los trabajadores manuales blancos como una amenaza a los salarios de los colonos blancos. [16] Tras el establecimiento de la Mancomunidad de Australia en 1901, estas medidas discriminatorias de control fronterizo rápidamente se expandieron a la Política de Australia Blanca , mientras que la legislación posterior en Estados Unidos (por ejemplo, la Ley de Inmigración de 1891 , la Ley de Naturalización de 1906 y la Ley de Inmigración de 1917 ) resultó en una política aún más estricta dirigida a los inmigrantes de Asia y partes del sur y este de Europa.

Los pasaportes BN(O) tenían una cubierta de color rojo burdeos, idéntica a la de los pasaportes de ciudadanos británicos , aunque sin el texto de las palabras "Unión Europea" en la parte superior de la cubierta entre 1990 y marzo de 2020.

Incluso después de la adopción de medidas como la Política de Australia Blanca y la Ley de Exclusión de los Chinos en las colonias de colonos de habla inglesa, el control generalizado de las fronteras internacionales siguió siendo un fenómeno relativamente raro hasta principios del siglo XX, antes de lo cual muchos estados tenían fronteras internacionales abiertas, ya sea en la práctica o debido a la falta de restricciones legales. John Maynard Keynes identificó la Primera Guerra Mundial en particular como el momento en que tales controles se volvieron comunes. [17]

La descolonización durante el siglo XX vio el surgimiento de una emigración masiva de las naciones del Sur Global , lo que llevó a los antiguos ocupantes coloniales a introducir controles fronterizos más estrictos. [18] En el Reino Unido, este proceso se llevó a cabo en etapas, y la ley de nacionalidad británica finalmente pasó de reconocer a todos los ciudadanos de la Commonwealth como súbditos británicos a la compleja ley de nacionalidad británica actual, que distingue entre ciudadanos británicos, súbditos británicos modernos , ciudadanos británicos de ultramar y nacionales de ultramar , y cada categoría no estándar se creó como resultado de los intentos de equilibrar el control fronterizo y la necesidad de mitigar la apatridia . Este aspecto del auge del control fronterizo en el siglo XX ha resultado controvertido. La Ley de nacionalidad británica de 1981 ha sido criticada por expertos, [a] así como por el Comité para la Eliminación de la Discriminación Racial de las Naciones Unidas, [b] con el argumento de que las diferentes clases de nacionalidad británica que creó están, de hecho, estrechamente relacionadas con los orígenes étnicos de sus titulares.

Por ejemplo, la creación del estatus de Nacionalidad Británica (en el Extranjero) (con menos privilegios que el estatus de ciudadano británico) fue criticada por muchos residentes de Hong Kong que sentían que la ciudadanía británica habría sido más apropiada a la luz de la "deuda moral" que el Reino Unido les debía. [c] [d] Algunos políticos británicos [e] y revistas [f] también criticaron la creación del estatus BN(O). En 2020, el gobierno británico bajo el mando de Boris Johnson anunció un programa en virtud del cual los BN(O) tendrían permiso para permanecer en el Reino Unido con derecho a trabajar y estudiar durante cinco años, después de lo cual podrían solicitar el estatus de asentado . Luego serían elegibles para la ciudadanía plena después de mantener el estatus de asentado durante 12 meses. [24] Esto se implementó como la homónima "visa de nacional británico (en el extranjero)", un permiso de residencia que los BN(O) y sus familiares dependientes han podido solicitar desde el 31 de enero de 2021. [25] [26] A los BN(O) y sus dependientes que llegaron al Reino Unido antes de que la nueva ruta de inmigración estuviera disponible se les concedió "Permiso fuera de las reglas" a discreción de la Fuerza Fronteriza para permanecer en el país hasta seis meses como medida temporal. [27] En efecto, esto otorgó retroactivamente a los BN(O) una vía para el derecho de residencia en el Reino Unido. A pesar de la pandemia de COVID-19 , alrededor de 7.000 personas habían ingresado al Reino Unido bajo este esquema entre julio de 2020 y enero de 2021. [28]

Las tensiones étnicas creadas durante la ocupación colonial también dieron lugar a la adopción de políticas discriminatorias en las naciones africanas recién independizadas, como Uganda bajo Idi Amin , que prohibió la entrada de asiáticos , creando así un éxodo masivo de la comunidad asiática de Uganda (en gran parte gujarati [29] [30] ). Estas políticas de control fronterizo impulsadas étnicamente adoptaron formas que iban desde el sentimiento antiasiático en África oriental hasta las políticas de apartheid en Sudáfrica y Namibia (entonces conocida como África del Sudoeste bajo el gobierno sudafricano) que crearon bantustanes [g] y aprobaron leyes [h] para segregar e imponer controles fronterizos contra los no blancos, y alentaron la inmigración de blancos a expensas de los negros, así como de los indios y otros asiáticos. Si bien el control fronterizo en Europa y el este del Pacífico se ha endurecido con el tiempo, [18] se ha liberalizado en gran medida en África, desde la revocación por parte de Yoweri Museveni de los controles fronterizos antiasiáticos de Idi Amin [i] hasta la caída del apartheid (y, por lo tanto, los controles fronterizos racializados) en Sudáfrica.

El desarrollo de las políticas de control fronterizo a lo largo del siglo XX también vio la estandarización de los documentos de viaje para refugiados bajo la Convención sobre el Estatuto de los Refugiados de 1951 [j] y el documento de viaje de la Convención de 1954 [37] para las personas apátridas bajo la convención similar sobre apatridia de 1954.

COVID-19

La pandemia de COVID-19 en 2020 produjo un endurecimiento drástico de los controles fronterizos en todo el mundo. Muchos países y regiones han impuesto cuarentenas, prohibiciones de entrada u otras restricciones para los ciudadanos o viajeros recientes a las áreas más afectadas. [38] Otros países y regiones han impuesto restricciones globales que se aplican a todos los países y territorios extranjeros, o impiden a sus propios ciudadanos viajar al extranjero. [39] La imposición de controles fronterizos ha reducido la propagación del virus, pero debido a que se implementaron por primera vez después de que se estableció la propagación comunitaria en varios países en diferentes regiones del mundo, solo produjeron una reducción modesta en el número total de personas infectadas. [40] Estos estrictos controles fronterizos dañan económicamente a la industria del turismo a través de la pérdida de ingresos y el daño social a las personas que no pudieron viajar por asuntos familiares u otras razones. Cuando se levanten las prohibiciones de viaje, se espera que muchas personas reanuden los viajes. Sin embargo, algunos viajes, especialmente los viajes de negocios , pueden disminuir a largo plazo ya que se prefieren alternativas de menor costo, como las teleconferencias y los eventos virtuales . [41] Un posible impacto a largo plazo ha sido la disminución de los viajes de negocios y las conferencias internacionales, y el aumento de sus equivalentes virtuales en línea. [42] Se han planteado preocupaciones sobre la eficacia de las restricciones de viaje para contener la propagación de COVID-19 . [43]

Aspectos

Las políticas contemporáneas de control de fronteras son complejas y abordan una variedad de fenómenos distintos según las circunstancias y las prioridades políticas de los Estados que las implementan. En consecuencia, hay varios aspectos del control de fronteras que varían en naturaleza e importancia de una región a otra.

Fronteras aéreas y marítimas

Además de las fronteras terrestres, los países también aplican medidas de control fronterizo al espacio aéreo y a las aguas bajo su jurisdicción . Dichas medidas controlan el acceso al territorio aéreo y marítimo, así como a los recursos extractivos (por ejemplo, pescado , minerales, combustibles fósiles).

En virtud de la Convención de las Naciones Unidas sobre el Derecho del Mar (CNUDM), [44] los Estados ejercen distintos grados de control sobre distintas categorías de aguas territoriales:

Los buques que no cumplan con las políticas marítimas de un estado pueden ser objeto de embargo y de medidas coercitivas por parte de las autoridades del estado. Las medidas de control de las fronteras marítimas son controvertidas en el contexto de las disputas comerciales internacionales, como fue el caso tras la detención de pescadores británicos por parte de Francia en octubre de 2021 tras el Brexit [47] [48] o cuando la marina indonesia detuvo a la tripulación del Seven Seas Conqueress alegando que el buque estaba pescando ilegalmente en aguas territoriales indonesias, mientras que el gobierno de Singapur afirmó que el buque se encontraba en aguas de Singapur cerca de Pedra Branca . [49]

De manera similar, el derecho internacional otorga a cada Estado el control sobre el espacio aéreo que se extiende sobre su territorio terrestre, sus aguas interiores y su mar territorial. En consecuencia, los Estados tienen la autoridad de regular los derechos de sobrevuelo y de imponer impuestos a las aeronaves extranjeras que utilicen su espacio aéreo. Además, la Organización de Aviación Civil Internacional designa a los Estados para que administren el espacio aéreo internacional, incluido el espacio aéreo sobre aguas que no forman parte del mar territorial de ningún Estado. Las aeronaves que entren ilegalmente en el espacio aéreo de un país pueden ser inmovilizadas y sus tripulaciones pueden ser detenidas.

Ningún país tiene soberanía sobre las aguas internacionales , incluido el espacio aéreo asociado. Todos los Estados tienen libertad de pesca, navegación, sobrevuelo, tendido de cables y tuberías, así como de investigación. Los océanos, mares y aguas fuera de la jurisdicción nacional también se denominan alta mar o, en latín , mare liberum (que significa mar libre ). La Convención sobre Alta Mar de 1958 definió "alta mar" como "todas las partes del mar que no están incluidas en el mar territorial o en las aguas interiores de un Estado" y donde "ningún Estado puede pretender válidamente someter ninguna parte de ellas a su soberanía". [50] Los barcos que navegan en alta mar generalmente están bajo la jurisdicción de su estado de pabellón (si lo hay); [51] sin embargo, cuando un barco está involucrado en ciertos actos delictivos, como la piratería , [52] cualquier nación puede ejercer jurisdicción bajo la doctrina de la jurisdicción universal independientemente de las fronteras marítimas.

Como parte de sus políticas de control de fronteras aéreas y marítimas, la mayoría de los países restringen o regulan la capacidad de las aerolíneas y buques extranjeros para transportar mercancías o pasajeros entre puertos marítimos y aeropuertos en su jurisdicción, conocido como cabotaje . Las restricciones al cabotaje marítimo se aplican en la mayoría de los países con aguas territoriales e internas con el fin de proteger la industria naviera nacional de la competencia extranjera, preservar la infraestructura naviera de propiedad nacional para fines de seguridad nacional y garantizar la seguridad en aguas territoriales congestionadas. [53] Por ejemplo, en Estados Unidos, la Ley Jones establece restricciones extremadamente estrictas al cabotaje. [m] De manera similar, China no permite que los buques con bandera extranjera realicen transporte nacional o transbordos nacionales sin la aprobación previa del Ministerio de Transporte. [54] Si bien Hong Kong y Macao mantienen regímenes de cabotaje interno distintos del continente, el cabotaje marítimo entre cualquiera de los territorios y el continente se considera transporte nacional y, en consecuencia, está fuera del alcance de los buques extranjeros. [54] De manera similar, los cruces marítimos a través del Estrecho de Taiwán requieren permisos especiales tanto de la República Popular China como de la República de China [n] y generalmente están fuera del alcance de los buques extranjeros. [54] En la India, los buques extranjeros que participan en el comercio de cabotaje [o] requieren una licencia que generalmente sólo se emite cuando no hay ningún buque local disponible. [54] De manera similar, a un buque extranjero sólo se le puede emitir una licencia para participar en el cabotaje en Brasil si no hay buques con bandera brasileña disponibles para el transporte previsto. [54]

Al igual que con el cabotaje marítimo, la mayoría de las jurisdicciones restringen fuertemente el cabotaje en la aviación de pasajeros, aunque las reglas sobre carga aérea son típicamente más laxas. El cabotaje de pasajeros no suele concederse en la mayoría de los acuerdos de cielos abiertos . Las políticas de cabotaje aéreo en la Unión Europea son excepcionalmente liberales en la medida en que las compañías aéreas con licencia de un estado miembro pueden realizar cabotaje en cualquier estado miembro de la UE, con pocas limitaciones. [55] Chile tiene las reglas de cabotaje aéreo más liberales del mundo, promulgadas en 1979, que permiten a las aerolíneas extranjeras operar vuelos nacionales, con la condición de que se dé un trato recíproco a las aerolíneas chilenas en el país de la aerolínea extranjera. Los países aplican disposiciones especiales a la capacidad de las aerolíneas extranjeras de transportar pasajeros entre dos destinos nacionales a través de un centro de operaciones en alta mar. [p]

Muchos países implementan zonas de identificación de defensa aérea (ADIZ) que requieren que las aeronaves que se aproximen dentro de una distancia específica de su espacio aéreo se pongan en contacto o soliciten autorización previa a sus autoridades militares o de transporte. [59] Una ADIZ puede extenderse más allá del territorio de un país para darle a este más tiempo para responder a posibles aeronaves hostiles. [60] El concepto de ADIZ no está definido en ningún tratado internacional y no está regulado por ningún organismo internacional, [60] [61] pero es, no obstante, una medida de control fronterizo aéreo bien establecida. [q] Por lo general, dichas zonas solo cubren territorio no disputado, no se aplican a aeronaves extranjeras que no tengan la intención de ingresar al espacio aéreo territorial y no se superponen. [61] [64]

Bioseguridad

Operaciones de cuarentena implementadas por el control fronterizo de China continental.
Un Certificado Internacional de Vacunación emitido por la Oficina de Cuarentena de Filipinas a una persona después de haber sido vacunada con una vacuna contra la COVID-19 en 2021.

La bioseguridad se refiere a las medidas destinadas a prevenir la introducción y/o propagación de organismos nocivos (por ejemplo, virus , bacterias , etc.) a los animales y las plantas con el fin de mitigar el riesgo de transmisión de enfermedades infecciosas . En la agricultura , estas medidas tienen como objetivo proteger los cultivos alimentarios y el ganado de las plagas , las especies invasoras y otros organismos no propicios para el bienestar de la población humana . El término incluye amenazas biológicas a las personas, incluidas las de las enfermedades pandémicas y el bioterrorismo . La definición a veces se ha ampliado para abarcar otros conceptos, y se utiliza para diferentes propósitos en diferentes contextos. La categoría más común de políticas de bioseguridad son las medidas de cuarentena adoptadas para contrarrestar la propagación de enfermedades y, cuando se aplican como un componente del control fronterizo, se centran principalmente en mitigar la entrada de personas, plantas o animales infectados a un país. [65] Otros aspectos de la bioseguridad relacionados con el control fronterizo incluyen políticas de vacunación obligatoria para los viajeros entrantes y medidas para reducir el riesgo que plantea el bioterrorismo o las especies invasoras . Las medidas de cuarentena se implementan con frecuencia con respecto a la movilidad de los animales, incluidas las mascotas y el ganado. Cabe destacar que, para reducir el riesgo de introducir la rabia desde la Europa continental, el Reino Unido solía exigir que los perros, y la mayoría de los demás animales introducidos en el país, pasaran seis meses en cuarentena en un punto de control de aduanas e impuestos especiales . Esta política se abolió en 2000 en favor de un plan conocido generalmente como Pasaportes para Mascotas , en el que los animales pueden evitar la cuarentena si tienen documentación que demuestre que están al día con sus vacunas correspondientes . [66]

En el pasado, los países europeos implementaron medidas de cuarentena para reducir la peste bubónica y el cólera . En las Islas Británicas, por ejemplo, la Ley de Cuarentena de 1710 ( 9.° aniversario ) estableció políticas de cuarentena marítima en una época en la que las estrictas medidas de control fronterizo en su conjunto aún no se habían generalizado. [67] La ​​primera ley se solicitó debido a los temores de que la peste pudiera importarse de Polonia y los estados bálticos . La segunda ley de 1721 se debió a la prevalencia de la peste en Marsella y otros lugares de Provenza, Francia . Se renovó en 1733 después de un nuevo brote en Europa continental , y nuevamente en 1743, debido a una epidemia en Messina . En 1752 se introdujo una rigurosa cláusula de cuarentena en una ley que regulaba el comercio con el Levante , y se emitieron varias órdenes arbitrarias durante los siguientes veinte años para enfrentar el supuesto peligro de infección de los estados bálticos. Aunque nunca se produjo ningún caso de peste en Inglaterra durante ese período, las restricciones al tráfico se hicieron más estrictas y en 1788 se aprobó una Ley de Cuarentena muy estricta, con disposiciones que afectaban a los cargamentos en particular. La ley fue revisada en 1801 y 1805, y en 1823-24 una investigación elaborada fue seguida por una ley que establecía que la cuarentena solo quedaba a discreción del Consejo Privado , que reconoció que la fiebre amarilla u otras enfermedades altamente infecciosas requerían cuarentena, junto con la peste. La amenaza del cólera en 1831 fue la última ocasión en Inglaterra del uso de restricciones de cuarentena. El cólera afectó a todos los países de Europa a pesar de todos los esfuerzos por mantenerlo fuera. Cuando el cólera regresó a Inglaterra en 1849, 1853 y 1865-66, no se hizo ningún intento de cerrar los puertos. En 1847, el Consejo Privado ordenó que se admitiera a todos los que llegaran con un certificado de buena salud del Mar Negro y el Levante, siempre que no hubiera habido ningún caso de peste durante el viaje y, posteriormente, se interrumpió la práctica de la cuarentena. [68]

En el derecho marítimo moderno , las medidas de bioseguridad para los buques que llegan se centran en la "pratique", una licencia de los funcionarios de control fronterizo que permite a un barco entrar en el puerto con la garantía del capitán de que el buque está libre de enfermedades contagiosas . La autorización concedida se conoce comúnmente como "free pratique". Un barco puede señalar una solicitud de "pratique" enarbolando una bandera cuadrada amarilla sólida. Esta bandera amarilla es la bandera Q en el conjunto de banderas de señales marítimas internacionales . [69] En caso de que no se conceda la "free pratique", un buque se mantendrá en cuarentena de acuerdo con las normas de bioseguridad vigentes en el puerto de entrada hasta que un funcionario de control fronterizo inspeccione el buque. [70] Durante la pandemia de COVID-19 , surgió una controversia sobre quién concedió la pratique al Ruby Princess . [71] Un concepto relacionado es el "certificado de salud", un documento emitido por los funcionarios de un puerto de salida que indica a los funcionarios del puerto de llegada si es probable que el barco sea portador de una enfermedad contagiosa , ya sea literalmente a bordo como fómites o a través de su tripulación o pasajeros. Según se define en un manual del cónsul de 1879:

Un certificado de sanidad es un documento expedido por el cónsul o las autoridades públicas del puerto de donde sale un buque, que describe la salud del puerto en el momento del despacho del buque. Un certificado de sanidad limpio certifica que en la fecha de su expedición no se conocía la existencia de ninguna enfermedad infecciosa ni en el puerto ni en sus inmediaciones. Un certificado de sanidad sospechoso o tocado informa de que circulaban rumores de que había aparecido una enfermedad infecciosa, pero que el rumor no había sido confirmado por ningún caso conocido. Un certificado de sanidad malo o la ausencia de un certificado de sanidad limpio implica que el lugar del que salió el buque estaba infectado con una enfermedad contagiosa. Los dos últimos casos harían que el buque fuera pasible de cuarentena. [72]

Otra categoría de medidas de bioseguridad adoptadas por las organizaciones de control fronterizo es la vacunación obligatoria . Como resultado de la prevalencia de la fiebre amarilla en gran parte del continente africano, una parte importante de los países de la región exigen a los pasajeros que llegan que presenten un Certificado Internacional de Vacunación o Profilaxis (Carte Jaune) que certifique que han recibido la vacuna contra la fiebre amarilla . Una variedad de otros países exigen a los viajeros que han visitado áreas donde la fiebre amarilla es endémica que presenten un certificado para pasar los puestos de control fronterizos como medio de prevenir la propagación de la enfermedad. Antes de la aparición de COVID-19 , la fiebre amarilla era la principal enfermedad humana sujeta a medidas de facto de pasaporte de vacunación por parte de las autoridades de control fronterizo en todo el mundo. Se han establecido medidas similares con respecto a la poliomielitis y la meningitis meningocócica en las regiones donde esas enfermedades son endémicas y en los países limítrofes con esas regiones. Antes de la erradicación de la viruela , se aplicaban requisitos similares de Carte Jaune para esa enfermedad en todo el mundo.

Una señal de tráfico en una salida de la carretera interestatal 91 en Vermont que advierte a las personas que ingresan al estado sobre una política de cuarentena adoptada en respuesta al COVID-19, fotografiada en noviembre de 2020.
Eslovaquia , que mantiene fronteras abiertas con otras jurisdicciones del Espacio Schengen , cerró sus fronteras a los no residentes debido a la pandemia de COVID-19.

Como resultado de la pandemia de COVID-19 , las medidas de bioseguridad se han convertido en un aspecto muy visible del control fronterizo en todo el mundo. En particular, la cuarentena y la vacunación obligatoria contra la COVID-19 para los viajeros internacionales. Junto con una menor disposición a viajar, la implementación de medidas de bioseguridad ha tenido un impacto económico y social negativo en la industria de los viajes . [73] Los viajes lentos aumentaron en popularidad durante la pandemia, ya que los turistas visitaron menos destinos durante sus viajes. [74] [75]

Las medidas de bioseguridad, como las restricciones a los viajes transfronterizos, la introducción de la vacunación obligatoria para los viajeros internacionales y la adopción de medidas de cuarentena o de realización de pruebas obligatorias han ayudado a contener la propagación de la COVID-19. [76] Aunque las medidas de detección fronteriza basadas en pruebas pueden resultar eficaces en determinadas circunstancias, es posible que no detecten una cantidad significativa de casos positivos si solo se llevan a cabo al llegar sin seguimiento. Una cuarentena mínima de 10 días puede ser beneficiosa para prevenir la propagación de la COVID-19 y puede ser más eficaz si se combina con una medida de control adicional como la detección fronteriza. [76] Un estudio publicado en Science concluyó que las restricciones de viaje podían retrasar la llegada inicial de la COVID-19 a un país, pero que solo producían efectos generales modestos a menos que se combinaran con medidas nacionales de prevención y control de infecciones para reducir considerablemente las transmisiones. [77] (Esto es coherente con investigaciones anteriores sobre la gripe y otras enfermedades transmisibles. [78] [79] ) Las prohibiciones de viaje al principio de la pandemia fueron más eficaces en lugares aislados, como las pequeñas naciones insulares . [79]

Durante la pandemia de COVID-19, muchas jurisdicciones de todo el mundo introdujeron medidas de bioseguridad en las fronteras internas, que abarcaron desde medidas de cuarentena impuestas a las personas que cruzaban las fronteras estatales dentro de Estados Unidos hasta prohibiciones de viajes interestatales en Australia .

Aduanas

Funcionario de aduanas de Corea del Norte en el Aeropuerto Internacional Sunan de Pyongyang .
Extremo sur (frontera aduanera) del muelle Captain Cook, Puertos de Auckland , Nueva Zelanda. Se ve apenas una cerca eléctrica detrás de la valla histórica

Cada país tiene sus propias leyes y reglamentos para la importación y exportación de mercancías hacia y desde un país, que son aplicados por sus autoridades aduaneras. La importación o exportación de algunas mercancías puede estar restringida o prohibida, en cuyo caso los controles aduaneros hacen cumplir esas políticas. [80] La aplicación de las normas aduaneras en las fronteras también puede implicar la recaudación de impuestos especiales y la prevención del contrabando de mercancías peligrosas o ilegales. Un derecho aduanero es un arancel o impuesto sobre la importación (por lo general) o la exportación (por lo general) de mercancías.

En muchos países, los controles fronterizos para los pasajeros que llegan a muchos aeropuertos internacionales y algunos cruces de carreteras están separados en canales rojos y verdes con el fin de priorizar la aplicación de las medidas aduaneras. [81] [82] Dentro del área aduanera común de la Unión Europea, los aeropuertos pueden operar canales azules adicionales para los pasajeros que llegan desde dentro de esa área. Para esos pasajeros, el control fronterizo puede centrarse específicamente en los artículos prohibidos y otros bienes que no están cubiertos por la política común. Las etiquetas de equipaje para el equipaje facturado que viaja dentro de la UE tienen bordes verdes para que puedan identificarse. [83] [84] En la mayoría de los estados miembros de la UE, los viajeros que vienen de otros países de la UE dentro del Espacio Schengen pueden utilizar el carril verde, aunque los aeropuertos fuera del Espacio Schengen o con vuelos frecuentes que llegan de jurisdicciones dentro de Schengen pero fuera de la Unión Europea pueden utilizar los canales azules para mayor comodidad y eficiencia.

Una zona aduanera es un área designada para el almacenamiento de mercancías comerciales que no han pasado los controles fronterizos. Las mercancías comerciales que aún no han pasado por la aduana suelen almacenarse en un tipo de zona aduanera conocida como depósito aduanero , hasta que se procesan o reexportan. [85] [86] Los puertos autorizados para manejar carga internacional generalmente incluyen depósitos aduaneros reconocidos. A los efectos de los derechos de aduana , las mercancías dentro del área aduanera se tratan como si estuvieran fuera del país. Esto permite un fácil transbordo a un tercer país sin que intervengan las autoridades aduaneras. [85] Por este motivo, las zonas aduaneras suelen estar cuidadosamente controladas y valladas para evitar el contrabando . Sin embargo, la zona sigue siendo territorialmente parte del país, por lo que las mercancías dentro de la zona están sujetas a otras leyes locales (por ejemplo, leyes sobre drogas y normas de bioseguridad ) y, por tanto, pueden ser registradas, incautadas o devueltas. El término también se utiliza a veces para definir una zona (normalmente compuesta por varios países) que forman una unión aduanera , un territorio aduanero , o para describir la zona de los aeropuertos y puertos donde se controla a los viajeros en la aduana.

Las medidas sanitarias y fitosanitarias (MSF) son medidas aduaneras para proteger a los seres humanos, los animales y las plantas de enfermedades, plagas o contaminantes. El Acuerdo sobre la Aplicación de Medidas Sanitarias y Fitosanitarias , concluido en la Ronda Uruguay de Negociaciones Comerciales Multilaterales , establece los tipos de medidas MSF que cada jurisdicción puede imponer. Ejemplos de MSF son los límites de tolerancia para los residuos, el uso restringido de sustancias, los requisitos de etiquetado relacionados con la seguridad alimentaria, los requisitos de higiene y los requisitos de cuarentena. En ciertos países, las medidas sanitarias y fitosanitarias se centran ampliamente en restringir y regular la importación de productos agrícolas extranjeros con el fin de proteger los ecosistemas nacionales. Por ejemplo, los controles fronterizos australianos restringen la mayoría (si no todos) de los productos alimenticios, ciertos productos de madera y otros artículos similares. [87] [88] [89] Existen restricciones similares en Canadá, Estados Unidos y Nueva Zelanda.

Mapa que muestra los países con una política de ejecución de narcotraficantes
  Sólo bajo ciertas condiciones

En muchos países de Asia y las Américas, el control fronterizo prioriza la aplicación de las leyes aduaneras relativas a los estupefacientes. Por ejemplo, la India y Malasia están centrando sus recursos en eliminar el contrabando de drogas desde Myanmar y Tailandia respectivamente. El problema se debe en gran medida a la elevada producción de drogas peligrosas e ilegales en el Triángulo Dorado , así como en regiones más al oeste, como Afganistán. Existe un problema similar al este del Pacífico, que ha dado lugar a que países como México y los Estados Unidos endurezcan el control fronterizo en respuesta al flujo hacia el norte de sustancias ilegales desde regiones como Colombia. La guerra contra las drogas en México y actividades similares de los cárteles en las zonas vecinas han exacerbado el problema. En algunos países, la importación, exportación, venta o posesión ilegal de drogas constituyen delitos capitales y pueden dar lugar a una sentencia de muerte. Un artículo de 2015 de The Economist dice que las leyes de 32 países prevén la pena capital para el contrabando de drogas, pero solo en seis países ( China , Irán , Arabia Saudita , Vietnam , Malasia y Singapur ) se sabe que los infractores de drogas son ejecutados de forma rutinaria. [90] Además, Singapur, Malasia e Indonesia imponen penas de muerte obligatorias a las personas que sean descubiertas contrabandeando sustancias restringidas a través de sus fronteras. Por ejemplo, Muhammad Ridzuan Ali fue ejecutado en Singapur el 19 de mayo de 2017 por tráfico de drogas. [91] Según un artículo de 2011 del Lawyers Collective , una ONG de la India , "32 países imponen la pena capital por delitos relacionados con estupefacientes y sustancias psicotrópicas ". [92] La ley de Corea del Sur prevé la pena capital para los delitos relacionados con las drogas, [93] pero Corea del Sur tiene una moratoria de facto sobre la pena capital ya que no ha habido ejecuciones desde 1997, a pesar de que todavía hay personas en el corredor de la muerte y se siguen dictando nuevas sentencias de muerte. [94]

Seguridad fronteriza

La seguridad fronteriza se refiere a las medidas adoptadas por uno o más gobiernos para hacer cumplir sus políticas de control fronterizo. [95] Dichas medidas apuntan a una variedad de cuestiones, que van desde las violaciones aduaneras y el comercio de bienes ilegales hasta la supresión de la migración o los viajes no autorizados. Las medidas específicas de seguridad fronteriza adoptadas por una jurisdicción varían según las prioridades de las autoridades locales y se ven afectadas por factores sociales, económicos y geográficos.

En la India, que mantiene la libre circulación con Nepal y Bután, la seguridad fronteriza se centra principalmente en las fronteras con Bangladesh, Pakistán y Myanmar. El principal objetivo de la India con respecto a la frontera con Bangladesh es disuadir la inmigración ilegal y el tráfico de drogas. [96] En la frontera con Pakistán, la Fuerza de Seguridad Fronteriza tiene como objetivo evitar la infiltración en territorio indio de terroristas de Pakistán y otros países occidentales (Afganistán, Irak, Siria, etc.). En cambio, la frontera de la India con Myanmar es porosa y el golpe militar de 2021 en Myanmar provocó una afluencia de refugiados que buscaban asilo en los estados fronterizos, incluido Mizoram . [97] La ​​devolución de refugiados rohingya es un aspecto polémico de la política de control fronterizo de la India con Myanmar. [98]

Mientras tanto, la política de seguridad fronteriza estadounidense se centra en gran medida en la frontera del país con México . La seguridad a lo largo de esta frontera se compone de muchos elementos distintos, entre ellos barreras físicas, rutas de patrulla, iluminación y personal de patrulla fronteriza. En contraste, la frontera con Canadá se compone principalmente de programas conjuntos de patrulla fronteriza y cámaras de seguridad, formando la frontera sin defensa más larga del mundo. En áreas remotas a lo largo de la frontera con Canadá, donde no hay cruces fronterizos con personal, hay sensores ocultos en carreteras, senderos, vías férreas y áreas boscosas, que se encuentran cerca de los puntos de cruce. [99]

La seguridad fronteriza en las fronteras exteriores del Espacio Schengen es especialmente restrictiva. Los miembros del Acuerdo de Schengen están obligados a aplicar controles estrictos a los viajeros que entran y salen del espacio. Estos controles están coordinados por la agencia Frontex de la Unión Europea y sujetos a normas comunes. Los detalles de los controles fronterizos, la vigilancia y las condiciones en las que se puede conceder el permiso para entrar en el Espacio Schengen se detallan exhaustivamente en el Código de Fronteras Schengen. [100] Todas las personas que cruzan las fronteras exteriores, ya sean de entrada o de salida, están sujetas a un control por parte de un guardia de fronteras . La única excepción es la de los viajeros transfronterizos habituales (tanto los que tienen derecho a la libre circulación como los nacionales de terceros países) que son bien conocidos por los guardias fronterizos: una vez que un control inicial ha demostrado que no hay ninguna alerta registrada que les concierna en el Sistema de Información de Schengen o en las bases de datos nacionales, solo pueden ser sometidos a controles ocasionales "aleatorios", en lugar de controles sistemáticos cada vez que cruzan la frontera. [101] [102] [103] Además, la seguridad fronteriza en Europa se está subcontratando cada vez más a empresas privadas, y el mercado de seguridad fronteriza crece a un ritmo del 7% anual. [104] En su serie Border Wars, el Transnational Institute mostró que la industria de las armas y la seguridad ayuda a dar forma a la política europea de seguridad fronteriza mediante el cabildeo, las interacciones regulares con las instituciones fronterizas de la UE y la formulación de políticas de investigación. [105] El instituto critica a la industria de la seguridad fronteriza por tener un interés personal en aumentar la militarización de las fronteras para aumentar las ganancias. Además, las mismas empresas también suelen estar involucradas en el comercio de armas y, por lo tanto, se benefician doblemente: primero de alimentar los conflictos, la represión y los abusos de los derechos humanos que han llevado a los refugiados a huir de sus hogares y, más tarde, de interceptarlos a lo largo de sus rutas migratorias. [106]

Muros fronterizos

Los muros fronterizos son un elemento común de las medidas de seguridad fronteriza en todo el mundo. Los muros fronterizos generalmente buscan limitar los viajes no autorizados a través de una frontera internacional y con frecuencia se implementan como una respuesta populista a los refugiados y los migrantes económicos.

La barrera entre India y Bangladesh es una valla de alambre de púas y hormigón de 3.406 kilómetros (2.116 millas) de largo y poco menos de 3 metros (9 pies 10 pulgadas) de alto que se encuentra actualmente en construcción. [107] Su objetivo declarado es limitar la migración no autorizada. [96] El proyecto ha sufrido varios retrasos y todavía no hay una fecha clara de finalización para el proyecto. [107] De manera similar a la barrera de la India con Bangladesh y al muro propuesto entre Estados Unidos y México, Irán ha construido un muro en su frontera con Pakistán . El muro tiene como objetivo reducir los cruces fronterizos no autorizados [108] y detener el flujo de drogas, [109] y también es una respuesta a los ataques terroristas, en particular el ocurrido en la ciudad fronteriza iraní de Zahedan el 17 de febrero de 2007, que mató a trece personas, incluidos nueve funcionarios de la Guardia Revolucionaria Iraní . [110] La propuesta del expresidente Donald Trump de construir un nuevo muro a lo largo de la frontera constituyó una característica importante de su campaña presidencial de 2016 y, a lo largo de su presidencia, su administración gastó aproximadamente 15 mil millones de dólares en el proyecto, con 5 mil millones de dólares asignados de la Oficina de Aduanas y Protección Fronteriza de Estados Unidos , 6.3 mil millones de dólares asignados de la iniciativa antinarcóticos financiada por el Congreso y 3.6 mil millones de dólares asignados del ejército estadounidense. [111] Los miembros de los partidos demócrata y republicano que se opusieron a las políticas de control fronterizo de Trump consideraron que el muro fronterizo era innecesario o indeseable, argumentando que otras medidas serían más efectivas para reducir la inmigración ilegal que construir un muro, incluido el abordaje de los problemas económicos que llevan a que la inmigración sea un problema relevante en su conjunto, la vigilancia fronteriza o un aumento en el número de agentes de aduanas. [112] Además, en agosto de 2020, Estados Unidos construyó 3,8 km de cercas de cable corto a lo largo de la frontera entre Abbotsford, Columbia Británica , y el condado de Whatcom, Washington . [113]

Los muros fronterizos han formado un componente importante de la política europea de control de fronteras tras la crisis migratoria europea . Los muros de Melilla y Ceuta, en la frontera de España con Marruecos, están diseñados para limitar la capacidad de los refugiados y los migrantes de entrar en la Unión Europea a través de las dos ciudades españolas en la costa marroquí. Se han tomado medidas similares en las fronteras del espacio Schengen con Turquía en respuesta a la crisis de refugiados en Siria. La creación de la organización colectiva de seguridad fronteriza de la Unión Europea, Frontex , es otro aspecto del creciente enfoque del bloque en la seguridad fronteriza. Dentro del Espacio Schengen, la seguridad fronteriza se ha convertido en una prioridad especialmente destacada para el gobierno húngaro bajo el hombre fuerte de derecha [114] [115] Viktor Orbán. [r] De manera similar, Arabia Saudita ha comenzado la construcción de una barrera o valla fronteriza entre su territorio y Yemen para evitar el movimiento no autorizado de personas y bienes. La diferencia entre las situaciones económicas de los países significa que muchos yemeníes se dirigen a Arabia Saudita para buscar trabajo. Arabia Saudita no tiene una barrera con sus otros vecinos en el Consejo de Cooperación del Golfo , cuyas economías son más similares. En 2006, Arabia Saudita propuso construir una valla de seguridad a lo largo de toda la longitud de su frontera desértica de 900 kilómetros con Irak. [124] En julio de 2009 se informó de que los saudíes pagarían 3.500 millones de dólares por una valla de seguridad. [125] El muro y la zanja combinados tendrán 965 kilómetros (600 millas) de largo e incluirán cinco capas de vallado, torres de vigilancia, cámaras de visión nocturna y cámaras de radar y estarán tripulados por 30.000 soldados. [126] En otras partes de Europa, la República de Macedonia comenzó a erigir una valla en su frontera con Grecia en noviembre de 2015. [127]

En 2003, Botswana comenzó a construir una cerca eléctrica de 480 kilómetros (300 millas) de largo a lo largo de su frontera con Zimbabwe . La razón oficial de la cerca es detener la propagación de la fiebre aftosa entre el ganado. Los zimbabuenses sostienen que la altura de la cerca está claramente destinada a mantener alejada a la gente. Botswana ha respondido que la cerca está diseñada para mantener alejado al ganado y para garantizar que quienes entren tengan sus zapatos desinfectados en los cruces fronterizos legales. Botswana también argumentó que el gobierno continúa alentando el movimiento legal hacia el país. Zimbabwe no quedó convencido y la barrera sigue siendo una fuente de tensión. [128]

Puestos de control fronterizos

El edificio Sultan Iskandar ( Malasia ) y el puesto de control Woodlands ( Singapur ) en la frontera entre Malasia y Singapur gestionan el cruce fronterizo terrestre internacional más transitado del mundo, con 350.000 viajeros diarios antes de la pandemia de COVID-19 . [129] [130]
La Terminal Internacional del Aeropuerto Internacional de San Francisco es un aeropuerto de entrada para los viajeros que llegan a Estados Unidos y cuenta con instalaciones de control fronterizo para los pasajeros que llegan. Como la mayoría de los aeropuertos norteamericanos, no cuenta con una zona de tránsito internacional estéril . Por lo tanto, los pasajeros nacionales e internacionales no están claramente separados. Esto permite transferencias más fáciles de vuelos nacionales a internacionales, pero requiere que los pasajeros en tránsito internacional pasen por el puesto de control fronterizo incluso si su destino final está fuera de Estados Unidos.

Un puesto de control fronterizo es un lugar donde se inspeccionan las mercancías o las personas que cruzan las fronteras para comprobar que cumplen las medidas de control fronterizo. Las fronteras con acceso controlado suelen tener un número limitado de puestos de control por los que se puede cruzar sin sanciones legales. Se pueden establecer acuerdos o tratados para permitir o exigir cruces menos restringidos (por ejemplo, el Acuerdo de Schengen ). Los puestos de control fronterizos terrestres (puertos de entrada terrestres) pueden contrastarse con las instalaciones de aduanas e inmigración en los puertos marítimos , aeropuertos internacionales y otros puertos de entrada .

Los puntos de control generalmente cumplen dos propósitos:

Un puesto de control fronterizo en el que se permite a los viajeros entrar en una jurisdicción se conoce como puerto de entrada. Los aeropuertos internacionales suelen ser puertos de entrada, al igual que los cruces de carreteras y ferrocarriles en una frontera terrestre . Los puertos marítimos solo se pueden utilizar como puertos de entrada si se establece una presencia aduanera dedicada allí. La decisión de convertirse en un puerto de entrada depende de la autoridad civil que controla el puerto. Un aeropuerto de entrada es un aeropuerto que proporciona servicios de aduanas e inmigración para los vuelos entrantes. Estos servicios permiten que el aeropuerto sirva como puerto de entrada inicial para los visitantes extranjeros que llegan a un país. Si bien los términos aeropuerto de entrada y aeropuerto internacional generalmente se usan indistintamente, no todos los aeropuertos internacionales califican como aeropuertos de entrada, ya que existen aeropuertos internacionales sin instalaciones de inmigración o aduanas en el Espacio Schengen cuyos miembros han eliminado los controles fronterizos entre sí. Los aeropuertos de entrada suelen ser más grandes que los aeropuertos nacionales y, a menudo, cuentan con pistas e instalaciones más largas para acomodar los aviones más pesados ​​​​que se usan comúnmente para viajes internacionales e intercontinentales. Los aeropuertos internacionales también suelen albergar vuelos nacionales , que a menudo ayudan a alimentar tanto a pasajeros como a carga en los internacionales (y viceversa). Los edificios, las operaciones y la gestión se han vuelto cada vez más sofisticados desde mediados del siglo XX, cuando los aeropuertos internacionales comenzaron a proporcionar infraestructura para los vuelos civiles internacionales. Se han desarrollado normas técnicas detalladas para garantizar la seguridad y se han implementado sistemas de codificación comunes para proporcionar coherencia global. Las estructuras físicas que dan servicio a millones de pasajeros y vuelos individuales se encuentran entre las más complejas e interconectadas del mundo. En la segunda década del siglo XXI, había más de 1.200 aeropuertos internacionales y casi dos mil millones de pasajeros internacionales junto con 50 millones de toneladas métricas (49.000.000 de toneladas largas; 55.000.000 de toneladas cortas) de carga que pasaban por ellos anualmente.

Las inspecciones fronterizas también tienen como objetivo proteger la agricultura de cada país de las plagas . [131] Las autoridades fitosanitarias nacionales e internacionales mantienen bases de datos de intercepciones fronterizas, ocurrencias y establecimientos . [131] Bebber et al. , 2019 analiza dichos registros y descubre que no informan sobre muchas especies de plagas importantes, que las naciones insulares son más vulnerables porque tienen proporciones de frontera a área más bajas y que las plagas se están moviendo hacia los polos para seguir los cultivos humanos a medida que nuestros cultivos siguen el calentamiento global . [131]

El ingreso "Quilantan" o "Wave Through" es un fenómeno que se produce en los puestos de control fronterizos estadounidenses y que permite una forma de ingreso no estándar pero legal sin ninguna inspección de los documentos de viaje. Se produce cuando el personal de seguridad fronteriza presente en un cruce fronterizo decide admitir sumariamente a un cierto número de personas sin realizar una entrevista estándar o un examen de documentos. [132] Si una persona puede demostrar que se le permitió pasar por inmigración de esta manera, se considera que ha entrado con inspección a pesar de no haber respondido a ninguna pregunta ni haber recibido un sello de entrada en el pasaporte . [133] Esta definición de ingreso legal solo se extiende a los extranjeros que ingresaron a Estados Unidos en cruces fronterizos oficiales y no proporciona una vía para la residencia legal para aquellos que no ingresaron a través de un cruce reconocido. [134]

Zonas fronterizas

Las zonas fronterizas son áreas cercanas a las fronteras que tienen restricciones especiales de movimiento. Los gobiernos pueden prohibir la entrada o salida no autorizada de las zonas fronterizas y restringir la propiedad de propiedades en el área. Las zonas funcionan como zonas de amortiguación monitoreadas específicamente por patrullas fronterizas para prevenir viajes transfronterizos no autorizados. Las zonas fronterizas permiten a las autoridades detener y procesar a personas sospechosas de ser o ayudar a inmigrantes indocumentados, contrabandistas o espías sin tener que demostrar necesariamente que las personas en cuestión realmente participaron en la actividad no autorizada sospechosa ya que, como toda presencia no autorizada en el área está prohibida, la mera presencia de una persona permite a las autoridades arrestarla. Las zonas fronterizas entre estados hostiles pueden estar fuertemente militarizadas, con campos de minas , alambre de púas y torres de vigilancia . Algunas zonas fronterizas están diseñadas para prevenir la inmigración o emigración ilegal y no tienen muchas restricciones, pero pueden operar puestos de control para verificar el estado de inmigración. En la mayoría de los lugares, generalmente se incluye y/o se requiere una vista fronteriza . En algunas naciones, el movimiento dentro de una zona fronteriza sin una licencia es un delito y dará lugar a un arresto. No se requiere causa probable ya que la mera presencia dentro de la zona es un delito, si es intencional. [135] Incluso con una licencia para entrar, está prohibido tomar fotografías, hacer fogatas, portar armas de fuego y cazar.

Ejemplos de zonas fronterizas internacionales son la Zona de Seguridad Fronteriza de Rusia y la zona fronteriza finlandesa en la frontera entre Finlandia y Rusia . También hay zonas dentro del país como la Cortina de Cactus que rodea la Base Naval de la Bahía de Guantánamo en Cuba, la Zona Desmilitarizada de Corea a lo largo de la línea de demarcación entre Corea del Norte y Corea del Sur y el Área Fronteriza Cerrada en Hong Kong . Ejemplos históricos importantes son el Alambre de la Muerte establecido por el Imperio Alemán para controlar la frontera entre Bélgica y los Países Bajos y la Cortina de Hierro , un conjunto de zonas fronterizas mantenidas por la Unión Soviética y sus estados satélite a lo largo de sus fronteras con los estados occidentales. Una de las partes más militarizadas fue la zona restringida de la frontera interior alemana . Si bien inicialmente y oficialmente la zona era para la seguridad fronteriza, finalmente fue diseñada para evitar el escape de la esfera soviética hacia Occidente. En última instancia, los gobiernos del Bloque del Este recurrieron al uso de contramedidas letales contra quienes intentaban cruzar la frontera, como vallas minadas y órdenes de disparar a cualquiera que intentara cruzar hacia Occidente. Las restricciones a la construcción y a la habitación convirtieron la zona en un "corredor verde", hoy establecido como Cinturón Verde Europeo .

En la zona que se extiende hacia el interior desde su frontera interna con el continente , Hong Kong mantiene una zona fronteriza cerrada a la que no pueden acceder quienes no cuenten con una autorización especial. La zona se estableció en la década de 1950, cuando Hong Kong se encontraba bajo administración británica, como consecuencia de la Convención para la Extensión del Territorio de Hong Kong antes de la Transferencia de la soberanía sobre Hong Kong en 1997. Los objetivos de la zona eran prevenir la inmigración ilegal y el contrabando; el contrabando se había vuelto frecuente como consecuencia de la Guerra de Corea . Hoy, en virtud de la política de un país, dos sistemas , la zona sigue utilizándose para reducir la migración no autorizada a Hong Kong y el contrabando de mercancías en ambas direcciones.

Policías surcoreanos de guardia en la frontera entre Corea del Norte y Corea del Sur. Vista desde Corea del Sur.
Policías norcoreanos de guardia en la frontera entre Corea del Norte y Corea del Sur. Vista desde Corea del Norte.

Como resultado de la partición de la península de Corea por parte de Estados Unidos y la Unión Soviética después de la Segunda Guerra Mundial, y exacerbada por la posterior Guerra de Corea , existe una Zona Desmilitarizada (DMZ) que abarca la frontera de facto entre Corea del Norte y Corea del Sur . La DMZ sigue los límites efectivos a partir del final de la Guerra de Corea en 1953. De manera similar a la Zona Fronteriza Cerrada en Hong Kong, esta zona y el aparato de defensa que existe en ambos lados de la frontera sirven para restringir el paso no autorizado entre los dos lados. En Corea del Sur, existe un área vallada adicional entre la Línea de Control Civil (CCL) y el comienzo de la Zona Desmilitarizada. La CCL es una línea que designa una zona de amortiguación adicional a la Zona Desmilitarizada dentro de una distancia de 5 a 20 kilómetros (3,1 a 12,4 millas) desde la Línea Límite Sur de la Zona Desmilitarizada. Su propósito es limitar y controlar la entrada de civiles al área para proteger y mantener la seguridad de las instalaciones y operaciones militares cerca de la Zona Desmilitarizada. El comandante del 8.º Ejército de los EE. UU. ordenó la creación de la CCL, que se activó y entró en vigor por primera vez en febrero de 1954. [136] La zona de amortiguación que se encuentra al sur de la Línea Límite Sur se denomina Zona de Control Civil. Las vallas de alambre de púas y los puestos de guardia militar con personal marcan la CCLe. Los soldados surcoreanos suelen acompañar a los autobuses y automóviles turísticos que viajan al norte de la CCL como guardias armados para vigilar a los civiles y protegerlos de los intrusos norcoreanos. La mayoría de las fotografías de turistas y medios de comunicación de la "valla de la Zona Desmilitarizada" son en realidad fotografías de la valla de la CCL. La valla de la Zona Desmilitarizada real en la Línea Límite Sur está completamente prohibida para todos, excepto para los soldados, y es ilegal tomar fotografías de la valla de la Zona Desmilitarizada.

De manera similar, todo el estuario del río Han en la península de Corea se considera una "zona neutral" y está oficialmente fuera del alcance de todos los buques civiles. Solo los buques militares pueden ingresar a esta zona neutral. [s] En los últimos años, los buques pesqueros chinos se han aprovechado de la tensa situación en la Zona Neutral del Estuario del Río Han y han pescado ilegalmente en esta área debido a que las armadas de Corea del Norte y Corea del Sur nunca patrullan esta área debido al temor de que estallen batallas navales. Esto ha provocado tiroteos y hundimientos de barcos entre pescadores chinos y la Guardia Costera de Corea del Sur . [138] [139] El 30 de enero de 2019, los funcionarios militares de Corea del Norte y Corea del Sur firmaron un acuerdo histórico que abriría el estuario del río Han a los buques civiles por primera vez desde el Acuerdo de Armisticio de 1953. El acuerdo estaba programado para llevarse a cabo en abril de 2019, pero el fracaso de la Cumbre de Hanoi de 2019 pospuso indefinidamente estos planes. [140] [141] [142]

La Línea Verde que separa Chipre meridional de Chipre septentrional es una zona fronteriza desmilitarizada operada por la Fuerza de las Naciones Unidas para el Mantenimiento de la Paz en Chipre [t] que opera y patrulla dentro de la zona de amortiguación. La zona de amortiguación se estableció en 1974 debido a las tensiones étnicas entre los chipriotas griegos y turcos . La línea verde es similar en naturaleza al paralelo 38 que separa la República de Corea y Corea del Norte.

Algunas zonas fronterizas, denominadas vistas fronterizas , están compuestas por espacios despejados por mandato legal entre dos áreas de vegetación ubicadas en una frontera internacional destinadas a proporcionar una línea de demarcación clara entre dos jurisdicciones. Las vistas fronterizas se encuentran más comúnmente a lo largo de líneas fronterizas internacionales sin defensa, donde la seguridad fronteriza no es una necesidad tan grande y una barrera construida no es deseada, y son un requisito del tratado para ciertas fronteras. Un ejemplo de una vista fronteriza es un espacio despejado de 6 metros (20 pies) alrededor de porciones sin vigilancia de la frontera entre Canadá y Estados Unidos . [143] Muchos tratados internacionales prevén espacios despejados similares a lo largo de la línea fronteriza. Por ejemplo, el tratado de gestión fronteriza de 2006 entre Rusia y China prevé una franja despejada de 15 metros (49 pies) a lo largo de la frontera de las dos naciones. [144]

En 2024, Egipto anunció que construirá una zona de amortiguación en la frontera entre Egipto y Gaza. [145] [146]

Ley de inmigración

La ley de inmigración se refiere a los estatutos , reglamentos y precedentes legales nacionales que rigen la inmigración y la deportación de un país. Estrictamente hablando, es distinta de otros asuntos como la naturalización y la ciudadanía , aunque a menudo se confunden. Las leyes de inmigración varían en todo el mundo, así como de acuerdo con el clima social y político de la época, ya que la aceptación de los inmigrantes oscila entre la ampliamente inclusiva y la profundamente nacionalista y aislacionista . Los países con frecuencia mantienen leyes que regulan tanto los derechos de entrada y salida como los derechos internos, como la duración de la estadía, la libertad de movimiento y el derecho a participar en el comercio o el gobierno. Las leyes nacionales sobre la inmigración de ciudadanos de ese país están reguladas por el derecho internacional . El Pacto Internacional de Derechos Civiles y Políticos de las Naciones Unidas exige que todos los países permitan la entrada a sus propios ciudadanos. [147]

Políticas de inmigración

Comunidades de diáspora

Karta Polaka – documento modelo

Algunos países adoptan políticas de inmigración diseñadas para ser favorables hacia los miembros de las comunidades de la diáspora con una conexión con el país. Por ejemplo, el gobierno indio confiere el estatus de Ciudadanía de la India en el Extranjero (OCI) a los ciudadanos extranjeros de origen indio para vivir y trabajar indefinidamente en la India. El estatus OCI se introdujo en respuesta a las demandas de doble ciudadanía por parte de la diáspora india, particularmente en países con grandes poblaciones de origen indio. [u] Fue introducido por la Ley de Ciudadanía (Enmienda) de 2005 en agosto de 2005. [148] [149] De manera similar al estatus OCI, la visa de ascendencia del Reino Unido exime a los miembros de la diáspora británica [v] de los controles de inmigración habituales. Polonia emitió la Karta Polaka a los ciudadanos de ciertos países del noreste de Europa con ascendencia polaca, pero luego la expandió a la Polonia mundial .

Algunas naciones reconocen el derecho de retorno a las personas con ascendencia en ese país o con vínculos con un grupo étnico en particular. Un ejemplo notable de esto es el derecho de los judíos sefardíes a adquirir la nacionalidad española en virtud de los orígenes españoles de su comunidad. Existen exenciones similares a los controles de inmigración para las personas de origen armenio que buscan adquirir la ciudadanía armenia. Ghana, de manera similar, otorga un derecho indefinido a permanecer en Ghana a los miembros de la diáspora africana independientemente de su ciudadanía. [151] De manera similar, Israel mantiene una política que permite a los miembros de la diáspora judía inmigrar a Israel independientemente de su nacionalidad previa.

La política de inmigración de Corea del Sur es relativamente única en el sentido de que, como consecuencia de su reclamación sobre el territorio actualmente administrado por Corea del Norte, los ciudadanos de Corea del Norte son considerados por el Sur como sus propios ciudadanos por nacimiento. [152] En consecuencia, los refugiados norcoreanos en China a menudo intentan viajar a países como Tailandia que, si bien no ofrecen asilo a los norcoreanos, los clasifican como inmigrantes no autorizados y los deportan a Corea del Sur en lugar de Corea del Norte. [153] [154] [155] Al mismo tiempo, esta política ha funcionado para impedir que los coreanos zainichi pro-Corea del Norte reconocidos por Japón como Chōsen-seki entren en Corea del Sur sin un permiso especial de las autoridades surcoreanas ya que, a pesar de ser considerados ciudadanos de la República de Corea y miembros de la diáspora coreana, generalmente se niegan a ejercer ese estatus. [156]

Fronteras abiertas

  Estados miembros del espacio Schengen
  Otros estados miembros de la Unión Europea

Una frontera abierta es la desregulación y/o falta de regulación del movimiento de personas entre naciones y jurisdicciones, esto no se aplica al comercio o movimiento entre áreas de tierra de propiedad privada. [157] La ​​mayoría de las naciones tienen fronteras abiertas para viajar dentro de su nación de viaje, aunque los estados más autoritarios pueden limitar la libertad de movimiento interno de sus ciudadanos, como por ejemplo en la ex URSS. Sin embargo, solo un puñado de naciones han desregulado las fronteras abiertas con otras naciones, un ejemplo de esto son los países europeos bajo el Acuerdo de Schengen o la frontera abierta entre Bielorrusia y Rusia . [158] Las fronteras abiertas solían ser muy comunes entre todas las naciones, sin embargo, esto se volvió menos común después de la Primera Guerra Mundial , lo que llevó a la regulación de las fronteras abiertas, haciéndolas menos comunes y ya no factibles para la mayoría de las naciones industrializadas . [159]

Las fronteras abiertas son la norma para las fronteras entre subdivisiones dentro de los límites de los estados soberanos , aunque algunos países mantienen controles fronterizos internos (por ejemplo, entre la República Popular China continental y las regiones administrativas especiales de Hong Kong y Macao ; o entre el continente americano, los territorios no incorporados [w] distintos de Puerto Rico y Hawái. [x] Las fronteras abiertas también son habituales entre los estados miembros de las federaciones , aunque (muy raramente) el movimiento entre los estados miembros puede estar controlado en circunstancias excepcionales. [y] Las federaciones, confederaciones y uniones multinacionales similares suelen mantener controles fronterizos externos a través de un sistema de control fronterizo colectivo, aunque a veces tienen fronteras abiertas con otros estados no miembros a través de acuerdos internacionales especiales, como entre los países del Acuerdo de Schengen, como se mencionó anteriormente.

En la actualidad, existen acuerdos de apertura de fronteras de diversos tipos en varias zonas del mundo, como se detalla a continuación:

Hostile environment policies

Certain jurisdictions gear their immigration policies toward creating a hostile environment for undocumented migrants in order to deter migration by creating an unwelcoming atmosphere for potential and existing immigrants. Notably, the British Home Office adopted a set of administrative and legislative measures designed to make staying in the United Kingdom as difficult as possible for people without leave to remain, in the hope that they may "voluntarily leave".[166][167][168][169][170] The Home Office policy was first announced in 2012 under the Conservative-Liberal Democrat coalition.[171] The policy was implemented pursuant to the 2010 Conservative Party Election Manifesto.[172][173][174] The policy has been criticised for being unclear, has led to many incorrect threats of deportation and has been called "Byzantine" by the England and Wales Court of Appeal for its complexity.[175][176][177][178][179][180][181]

Similarly, anti-immigration movements in America have advocated for policies aimed at creating a hostile environment for intended and existing immigrants at various points in history. Historical examples include the nativist Know Nothing movement of the mid-19th century, which advocated hostile policies against Catholic immigrants; the Workingman's Party, which promoted xenophobic attitudes toward Asians in California during the late-19th century, a sentiment that ultimately led to the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882; the Immigration Restriction League, which advocated xenophobic policies against southern and eastern Europe during the late-19th and early 20th centuries, and the joint congressional Dillingham Commission. Following World War I, these cumulatively resulted in the highly restrictive Emergency Quota Act of 1921 and the Immigration Act of 1924. Over the first two decades of the 21st century, the Republican Party adopted an increasingly nativist platform, advocating against sanctuary cities and in favour of building a wall with Mexico and reducing the number of immigrants permitted to settle in the country. Ultimately, the Trump administration furthered many of these policy goals, including the adoption of harsh policies such as the Remain in Mexico and family separation policies vis à vis refugees and migrants arriving from Central America via Mexico. Islamophobic policies such as the travel ban targeted primarily at Muslim-majority countries also feature prominently in attempts to create a hostile environment for immigrants perceived by populists as not belonging to the predominant WASP culture in the United States.

India's citizenship registration policy serves to create a hostile environment for the country's Muslim community in the regions in which it has been implemented.[182] The Indian government is presently in the process of building several detention camps throughout India in order to detain people not listed on the register.[183] On 9 January 2019, the Union government released a '2019 Model Detention Manual', which stated that every city or district, having a major immigration check post, must have a detention centre.[184] The guidelines suggest detention centres with 3 metres (9 feet 10 inches) high boundary walls covered with barbed wires.[185][186]

International zones

An international zone is any area not fully subject to the border control policies of the state in which it is located. There are several types of international zones ranging from special economic zones and sterile zones at ports of entry exempt from customs rules to concessions over which administration is ceded to one or more foreign states. International zones may also maintain distinct visa policies from the rest of the surrounding state.

Internal border controls

Internal border controls are measures implemented to control the flow of people or goods within a given country. Such measures take a variety of forms ranging from the imposition of border checkpoints to the issuance of internal travel documents and vary depending on the circumstances in which they are implemented. Circumstances resulting in internal border controls include increasing security around border areas (e.g. internal checkpoints in America or Bhutan near border regions), preserving the autonomy of autonomous or minority areas (e.g. border controls between Peninsular Malaysia, Sabah, and Sarawak; border controls between Hong Kong, Macau, and mainland China), preventing unrest between ethnic groups (e.g. Northern Ireland's peace walls, border controls in Tibet and Northeastern India), and disputes between rival governments (e.g. between the Republic of China and the People's Republic of China).

During the COVID-19 pandemic, temporary internal border controls were introduced in jurisdictions across the globe. For instance, travel between Australian states and territories was prohibited or restricted by state governments at various points of the pandemic either in conjunction with sporadic lockdowns or as a stand-alone response to COVID-19 outbreaks in neighbouring states.[187][188][189] Internal border controls were also introduced at various stages of Malaysia's Movement Control Order, per which interstate travel was restricted depending on the severity of ongoing outbreaks. Similarly, internal controls were introduced by national authorities within the Schengen Area, though the European Union ultimately rejected the idea of suspending the Schengen Agreement per se.[190][191]

Asia

Internal border controls exist in many parts of Asia. For example, travellers visiting minority regions in India and China often require special permits to enter.[z] Internal air and rail travel within non-autonomous portions of India and mainland China also generally require travel documents to be checked by government officials as a form of the interior border checkpoint. For such travel within India, Indian citizens may utilise their Voter ID, National Identity Card, passport, or other proof of Indian citizenship whilst Nepali nationals may present any similar proof of Napali citizenship. Meanwhile, for such travel within mainland China, Chinese nationals from the mainland are required to use their national identity cards.

Within China, extensive border controls are maintained for those travelling between the mainland, special administrative regions of Hong Kong and Macau. Foreign nationals need to present their passports or other required types of travel documents when travelling between these jurisdictions. For Chinese nationals (including those with British National (Overseas) status), there are special documents[aa] for travel between these territories. Internal border controls in China have also resulted in the creation of special permits allowing Chinese citizens to immigrate to or reside in other immigration areas within the country.[ab]

China also maintains distinct, relaxed border control policies in the Special Economic Zones of Shenzhen, Zhuhai and Xiamen.[193][194] Nationals of most countries[ac] can obtain a limited area visa upon arrival in these regions, which permit them to stay within these cities without proceeding further into other parts of Mainland China. Visas for Shenzhen are valid for 5 days, and visas for Xiamen and Zhuhai are valid for 3 days. The duration of stay starts from the next day of arrival.[196] The visa can only be obtained only upon arrival at Luohu Port, Huanggang Port Control Point, Fuyong Ferry Terminal or Shekou Passenger Terminal for Shenzhen;[197] Gongbei Port of Entry, Hengqin Port or Jiuzhou Port for Zhuhai;[198] and Xiamen Gaoqi International Airport for Xiamen.[199]

Similarly, China permits nationals of non—visa-exempt ASEAN countries[ad] to visit Guilin without a visa for a maximum of 6 days if they travel with an approved tour group and enter China from Guilin Liangjiang International Airport. They may not visit other cities within Guangxi or other parts of Mainland China.[200]

Neither the People's Republic of China nor the Republic of China recognizes the passports issued by the other and neither considers travel between mainland China and areas controlled by the Republic of China[n]as formal international travel. There are arrangements exist for travel between territories controlled by the Republic of China and territories controlled by the People's Republic of China. [ae]

Meanwhile, in Bhutan, accessible by road only through India, there are interior border checkpoints (primarily on the Lateral Road) and, additionally, certain areas require special permits to enter, whilst visitors not proceeding beyond the border city of Phuentsholing do not need permits to enter for the day (although such visitors are de facto subject to Indian visa policy since they must proceed through Jaigaon). Individuals who are not citizens of India, Bangladesh, or the Maldives must obtain both their visa and any regional permits required through a licensed tour operator prior to arriving in the country. Citizens of India, Bangladesh, and the Maldives may apply for regional permits for restricted areas online.[201]

More generally, authorities in mainland China maintain a system of residency registration known as hukou (Chinese: 户口; lit. 'household individual'), by which government permission is needed to formally change one's place of residence. It is enforced with identity cards. This system of internal border control measures effectively limited internal migration before the 1980s but subsequent market reforms caused it to collapse as a means of migration control. An estimated 150 to 200 million people are part of the "blind flow" and have unofficially migrated, generally from poor, rural areas to wealthy, urban ones. However, unofficial residents are often denied official services such as education and medical care and are sometimes subject to both social and political discrimination. In essence, the denial of social services outside an individual's registered area of residence functions as an internal border control measure geared toward dissuading migration within the mainland.

Another example is the Malaysian states of Sabah and Sarawak, which have maintained their own border controls[202] since joining Malaysia in 1963. The internal border control is asymmetrical; while Sabah and Sarawak impose immigration control on Malaysian citizens from other states, there is no corresponding border control in Peninsular Malaysia, and Malaysians from Sabah and Sarawak have unrestricted right to live and work in the Peninsular. For social and business visits less than three months, Malaysian citizens may travel between the Peninsular, Sabah and Sarawak using the Malaysian identity card (MyKad) or Malaysian passport, while for longer stays in Sabah and Sarawak they are required to have an Internal Travel Document or a passport with the appropriate residential permit.

The most restrictive internal border controls are in North Korea. Citizens are not allowed to travel outside their areas of residence without explicit authorisation, and access to the capital city of Pyongyang is heavily restricted.[203][204] Similar restrictions are imposed on tourists, who are only allowed to leave Pyongyang on government-authorised tours to approved tourist sites.

Europe

An example from Europe is the implementation of border controls on travel between Svalbard, which maintains a policy of free migration as a result of the Svalbard Treaty and the Schengen Area, which includes the rest of Norway. Other examples of effective internal border controls in Europe include the closed cities of certain CIS members, areas of Turkmenistan that require special permits to enter, restrictions on travel to the Gorno-Badakhshan Autonomous Region in Tajikistan, and (depending on whether Northern and Southern Cyprus are considered separate countries) the Cypriot border. Similarly, Iraq's Kurdistan region maintains a separate and more liberal visa and customs area from the rest of the country, even allowing visa free entry for Israelis whilst the rest of the country bans them from entering. Denmark also maintains a complex system of subnational countries which, unlike the Danish mainland, are outside the European Union and maintain autonomous customs policies.[af] In addition to the numerous closed cities of Russia,[205] parts of 19 subjects[ag] of the Russian Federation are closed for foreigners without special permits and are consequently subject to internal border controls.[206]

Another complex border control situation in Europe pertains to the United Kingdom. Whilst the crown dependencies are within the Common Travel Area, neither Gibraltar nor the sovereign British military exclaves of Akrotiri and Dhekelia are. The former maintains its own border control policies, thus requiring physical border security at its border with the Schengen Area as well as the implementation of border controls for travellers proceeding directly between Gibraltar and the British mainland. The latter maintains a relatively open border with Southern Cyprus, though not with Northern Cyprus. Consequently, it is a de facto member of the Schengen Area and travel to or from the British mainland requires border controls. On 31 December 2020, Spain and the United Kingdom reached an agreement in principle under which Gibraltar would join the Schengen Area,[207] clearing the way for the European Union and the UK to start formal negotiations on the matter.[208]

In the aftermath of Brexit, border controls for goods flowing between Great Britain and Northern Ireland were introduced in accordance with the Protocol on Ireland/Northern Ireland agreed to as part of the UK's withdrawal agreement with the EU.[209] Due to the thirty-year internecine conflict in Northern Ireland, the UK-Ireland border has had a special status since that conflict was ended by the Belfast Agreement/Good Friday Agreement of 1998. As part of the Northern Ireland Peace Process, the border has been largely invisible, without any physical barrier or custom checks on its many crossing points; this arrangement was made possible by both countries' common membership of both the EU's Single Market and Customs Union and of their Common Travel Area. Upon the UK's withdrawal from the European Union, the border in Ireland became the only land border between the UK and EU. EU single market and UK internal market provisions require certain customs checks and trade controls at their external borders. The Northern Ireland Protocol is intended to protect the EU single market, while avoiding imposition of a 'hard border' that might incite a recurrence of conflict and destabilise the relative peace that has held since the end of the Troubles. Under the Protocol, Northern Ireland is formally outside the EU single market, but EU free movement of goods rules and EU Customs Union rules still apply; this ensures there are no customs checks or controls between Northern Ireland and the rest of the island. In place of an Ireland/Northern Ireland land border, the protocol has created a de facto customs border down the Irish Sea for customs purposes, separating Northern Ireland from the island of Great Britain,[210][211] to the disquiet of prominent Unionists.[212] To operate the terms of the protocol, the United Kingdom must provide border control posts at Northern Ireland's ports:[212] actual provision of these facilities is the responsibility of Northern Ireland's Department of Agriculture, Environment and Rural Affairs (DAERA).[212] Temporary buildings were put in place for 1 January 2021, but in February 2021, the responsible Northern Ireland minister, Gordon Lyons (DUP), ordered officials to stop work on new permanent facilities and to stop recruiting staff for them.[213] In its half yearly financial report 26 August 2021, Irish Continental Group, which operates ferries between Great Britain and the Republic of Ireland, expressed concern at the lack of implementation of checks on goods arriving into Northern Ireland from Great Britain, as required under the protocol. The company said that the continued absence of these checks (on goods destined for the Republic of Ireland) is causing a distortion in the level playing field, since goods that arrive directly into Republic of Ireland ports from Great Britain are checked on arrival.[214] The implementation of border controls between Great Britain and Northern Ireland was the primary catalyst for the 2021 Northern Ireland riots.

An unusual example of internal border controls pertains to customs enforcement within the Schengen area. Even though borders are generally invisible, the existence of areas within the Schengen area but outside the European Union Value Added Tax Area, as well as jurisdictions such as Andorra which are not officially a part of the Schengen area but can not be accessed without passing through it, has resulted in the existence of sporadic internal border controls for customs purposes. Additionally, as per Schengen area rules,[215] hotels and other types of commercial accommodation must register all foreign citizens, including citizens of other Schengen states, by requiring the completion of a registration form by their own hand. [ah] The Schengen rules do not require any other procedures; thus, the Schengen states are free to regulate further details on the content of the registration forms, and identity documents which are to be produced, and may also require the persons exempted from registration by Schengen laws to be registered. A Schengen state is also permitted to reinstate border controls with another Schengen country for a short period where there is a serious threat to that state's "public policy or internal security" or when the "control of an external border is no longer ensured due to exceptional circumstances".[217] When such risks arise out of foreseeable events, the state in question must notify the European Commission in advance and consult with other Schengen states.[218] Since the implementation of the Schengen Agreement, this provision has been invoked frequently by member states, especially in response to the European migrant crisis.[ai]

Middle East

The Israeli military maintains an intricate network of internal border controls within Israeli and Palestinian territory restricting the freedom of movement of Palestinians, composed of permanent, temporary, and random manned checkpoints in the West Bank; the West Bank Barrier; and restrictions on the usage of roads by Palestinians.[221] Spread throughout the State of Israel and the areas of the State of Palestine under de facto Israeli control, internal border control measures are a key feature of Israeli and Palestinian life and are among the most restrictive in the world. Additionally, the blockade of the Gaza Strip results in a de facto domestic customs and immigration border for Palestinians. In order to clear internal border controls, Palestinians are required to obtain a variety of permits from Israeli authorities depending on the purpose and area of their travel. The legality and impact of this network of internal border controls is controversial. B'Tselem, an Israeli non-governmental organisation that monitors human rights in Palestine, argues that they breach the rights guaranteed by the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights—in particular, the right to a livelihood, the right to an acceptable standard of living, the right to satisfactory nutrition, clothing, and housing, and the right to attain the best standard of physical and mental health.[222] B'Tselem also argues that the restrictions on ill, wounded and pregnant Palestinians seeking acute medical care is in contravention of international law that states that medical professionals and the sick must be granted open passage.[223] While Israeli Supreme Court has deemed the measures acceptable for security reasons, Haaretz's Amira Hass argues this policy defies one of the principles of the Oslo Accords, which states that Gaza and the West Bank constitute a single geographic unit.[224]

Much like relations between Jewish settlers in Israel and the native Palestinian population, strained intercommunal relations in Northern Ireland between Irish Catholics and the descendants of Protestant settlers from England and Scotland have resulted in de facto internal checkpoints. The peace lines are an internal border security measure to separate predominantly republican and nationalist Catholic neighbourhoods from predominantly loyalist and unionist Protestant neighbourhoods. They have been in place in some form or another since the end of The Troubles in 1998, with the Good Friday Agreement. The majority of peace walls are located in Belfast, but they also exist in Derry, Portadown, and Lurgan,[225] with more than 32 kilometres (20 miles) of walls in Northern Ireland.[226] The peace lines range in length from a few hundred metres to over 5 kilometres. They may be made of iron, brick, steel or a combination of the three and are up to 8 metres (26 feet) high.[227][225] Some have gates in them (sometimes staffed by police) that allow passage during daylight but are closed at night.

North America

American Samoa entry stamp
Hyder, Alaska has no border controls for travellers entering from Canada, and travellers flying between Hyder and other Alaskan cities by seaplane undergo internal border control

Multiple types of internal border controls exist in the United States. While the American territories of Guam and the Northern Mariana Islands follow the same visa policy as the mainland, together, they also maintain their own visa waiver programme for certain nationalities.[228] Since the two territories are outside the customs territory of the United States, there are customs inspections when travelling between them, and the rest of the U.S. American Samoa has its own customs and immigration regulations, thus travelling between it and other American jurisdictions involves both customs and immigration inspections. The Virgin Islands are a special case, falling within the American immigration zone and solely following American visa policy, but being a customs free territory. As a result, there are no immigration checks between the two, but travellers arriving in Puerto Rico or the American mainland directly from the Virgin Islands are subject to border control for customs inspection. The United States also maintains interior checkpoints, similar to those maintained by Bhutan, along its borders with Mexico and Canada, subjecting people to border controls even after they have entered the country.

The Akwesasne nation; with territory in Ontario, Quebec, and New York; features several de facto internal border controls. As a result of protests by Akwesasne residents on their rights to cross the border unimpeded, as provided under the 1795 Jay Treaty, the Canada Border Services Agency closed its post on Cornwall Island, instead requiring travellers to proceed to the checkpoint in the city of Cornwall. As a consequence of the arrangement, residents of the island are required to clear border controls when proceeding North to the Ontarian mainland, as well as when proceeding South to Akwesasne territory in New York, thus constituting internal controls both from a Canadian perspective and from the perspective of the Akwesasne nation. Similarly, travelling between Canada and the Quebec portion of the Akwesasne nation requires driving through the state of New York, meaning that individuals will be required to clear American controls when leaving Quebec proper and to clear Canadian border controls when entering Quebec proper, though Canada does not impose border controls when entering the Quebec portion of the Akwesasne nation. Nevertheless, for residents who assert a Haudenosaunee national identity distinct from Canadian or American citizenship, the intricate network of Canadian and American border controls are seen as a foreign-imposed system of internal border controls, similar to the Israeli checkpoints in Palestinian territory.[229][230]

The city of Hyder, Alaska has also been subject to internal border controls since America chose to stop regulating arrivals in Hyder from British Columbia. Since travellers exiting Hyder into Stewart, British Columbia are subject to Canadian border controls, it is theoretically possible for someone to accidentally enter Hyder from Canada without their travel documents and then to face difficulties since both America and Canada would subject them to border controls that require travel documents. At the same time, however, the northern road connecting Hyder to uninhabited mountain regions of British Columbia is equipped with neither American nor Canadian border controls, meaning that tourists from Canada proceeding northwards from Hyder are required to complete Canadian immigration formalities when they return to Stewart despite never having cleared American immigration.

Historical

Identification and freedom of internal movement have sometimes been instruments of oppression, for example in Canada's pass system, or Apartheid-era South Africa's Pass laws.

Specific requirements

American and Canadian border officers at Vancouver airport

The degree of strictness of border controls varies across countries and borders. In some countries, controls may be targeted at the traveller's religion, ethnicity, nationality, or other countries that have been visited. Others may need to be certain the traveller has paid the appropriate fees for their visas and has future travel planned out of the country. Yet others may concentrate on the contents of the traveller's baggage, and imported goods to ensure nothing is being carried that might bring a biosecurity risk into the country.

Biometrics

A fingerprint scanner at Dulles International Airport collects biometric data on visitors, which can be used for confirming identities.

Several countries[aj] require all travellers, or all foreign travellers, to be fingerprinted on arrival and refuse admission to or arrest travellers who refuse to comply. In some countries, such as America, this may apply even to transit passengers proceeding to a third country.[244] Many countries also require a photo be taken of people entering the country. America, which does not fully implement exit control formalities at its land frontiers (although long mandated by domestic legislation),[245][246][247] intends to implement facial recognition for passengers departing from international airports to identify people who overstay their visa.[248] Together with fingerprint and face recognition, iris scanning is one of three biometric identification technologies internationally standardised since 2006 by the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) for use in e-passports[249] and the United Arab Emirates conducts iris scanning on visitors who need to apply for a visa.[250][251] The Department of Homeland Security has announced plans to greatly increase the biometric data it collects at American borders.[252] In 2018, Singapore began trials of iris scanning at three land and maritime immigration checkpoints.[253][254]

Immigration stamps

An immigration stamp is an inked impression in a passport or other travel document typically made by rubber stamp upon entering or exiting a territory. Depending on the jurisdiction, a stamp can serve different purposes. For example, in the United Kingdom, an immigration stamp in a passport includes the formal leave to enter granted to a person subject to entry control. In other countries, a stamp activates or acknowledges the continuing leave conferred in the passport bearer's entry clearance. Under the Schengen system, a foreign passport is stamped with a date stamp which does not indicate any duration of stay. This means that the person is deemed to have permission to remain either for three months or for the period shown on his visa if specified otherwise. Member states of the European Union are not permitted to place a stamp in the passport of a person who is not subject to immigration control. Stamping is prohibited because it is an imposition of a control to which the person is not subject. Passport stamps may occasionally take the form of sticker stamps, such as entry stamps from Japan. Depending on nationality, a visitor may not receive a stamp at all (unless specifically requested), such as an EU or EFTA citizen travelling to an EU or EFTA country, Albania,[255] or North Macedonia.[256] Most countries issue exit stamps in addition to entry stamps. A few countries issue only entry stamps, including Canada, El Salvador, Ireland, Mexico, New Zealand, Singapore, United Kingdom and the United States of America. Australia, Hong Kong, Israel, Macau and South Korea do not stamp passports upon entry nor exit. These countries or regions issue landing slips instead, with the exception of Australia who do not issue any form of physical evidence of entry. Visas may also take the form of passport stamps.

Immigration authorities usually have different styles of stamps for entries and exits, to make it easier to identify the movements of people. Ink colour might be used to designate mode of transportation (air, land or sea), such as in Hong Kong prior to 1997; while border styles did the same thing in Macau. Other variations include changing the size of the stamp to indicate length of stay, as in Singapore.

In many cases passengers on cruise ships do not receive passport stamps because the entire vessel has been cleared into port. It is often possible to get a souvenir stamp, although this requires finding the immigration office by the dock. In many cases officials are used to such requests and will cooperate.[257][258] Also, as noted below, some of the smallest European countries will give a stamp on request, either at their border or tourist office charging, at most, a nominal fee.

Exit controls

India and China, like most countries, implement border controls at both entry and exit, and consequently stamp passports upon exit
Entry stamp at Lewiston–Queenston Bridge, Ontario. Canada only conducts border control and stamps passports upon entry.

Whilst most countries implement border controls both at entry and exit, some jurisdictions do not. For instance, the United States and Canada do not implement exit controls at land borders and collect exit data on foreign nationals through airlines and through information sharing with neighbouring countries' entry border controls. These countries consequently do not issue exit stamps even to travellers who require stamps on entry. Similarly, Australia, Singapore and South Korea have eliminated exit stamps even though they continue to implement brief border control checks upon exit for most foreign nationals. In countries where there is no formal control by immigration officials of travel documents upon departure, exit information may be recorded by immigration authorities using the information provided to them by transport operators.

No exit control:

Formal exit control without passport stamping:

Exit permits

Some countries in Europe maintain controversial exit visa systems in addition to regular border controls. For instance, Uzbekistan requires its own citizens to obtain exit visas prior to leaving for countries other than fellow CIS nations in eastern Europe. Several countries in the Arabian peninsula require exit visas for foreign workers under the Kafala System meaning "sponsorship system"). Russia occasionally requires foreigners who overstay to obtain exit visas since one cannot exit Russia without a valid visa. Czechia has a similar policy.[266] Similarly, a foreign citizen granted a temporary residence permit in Russia needs an exit visa to take a trip abroad (valid for both exit and return). Not all foreign citizens are subject to that requirement. Citizens of Germany, for example, do not require this exit visa. During the Cold War, countries in the Eastern Bloc maintained strict controls on citizens' ability to travel abroad. Citizens of the Soviet Union, East Germany, and other communist states were typically required to obtain permission prior to engaging in international travel. Unlike most of these states, citizens of Yugoslavia enjoyed a significant freedom of international movement.[al]

Certain Asian countries have policies that similarly require certain categories of citizens to seek official authorisation prior to travelling or emigrating. This is usually either as a way to enforce national service obligations or to protect migrant workers from travelling to places where they may be abused by employers. Singapore, for instance, operates an Exit Permit scheme in order to enforce the national service obligations of its male citizens and permanent residents.[269] These restrictions vary according to age and status.[270] South Korea and Taiwan[271] have similar policies. India, on the other hand, requires citizens who have not met certain educational requirements (and thus may be targeted by human traffickers or be coerced into modern slavery) to apply for approval prior to leaving the country and endorses their passports with "Emigration Check Required". Nepal similarly requires citizens emigrating to America on an H-1B visa to present an exit permit issued by the Ministry of Labour. This document is called a work permit and needs to be presented to immigration to leave the country.[272] In a bid to increase protection for the large amount of Indian, Bangladeshi, Chinese, and Nepali citizens smuggled through Indian airports to the Middle East as underpaid labourers, many Indian airline companies require travellers to obtain an 'OK to Board' confirmation sent directly from visa authorities in certain GCC countries directly to the airline and will bar anyone who has not obtained this endorsement from clearing exit immigration.

Eritrea requires the vast majority of its citizens to apply for special authorisation if they wish to leave, or even travel within, the country.[273][274][275]

Travel documents

Automated travel document inspection at Dubai Airport

Border control policies typically require travellers to present valid travel documents in order to ascertain their identity, nationality or permanent residence status, and eligibility to enter a given jurisdiction. The most common form of travel document is the passport, a booklet-form identity document issued by national authorities or the governments of certain subnational territories[am] containing an individual's personal information as well as space for the authorities of other jurisdictions to affix stamps, visas, or other permits authorising the bearer to enter, reside, or travel within their territory. Certain jurisdictions permit individuals to clear border controls using identity cards, which typically contain similar personal information.

Visas

Tourist visas issued by India (left) and Singapore (right) in a stateless person's travel document.
Sample of printed out eNTRI slip for Indian and mainland Chinese citizens to clear Malaysian border controls without a visa.

A visa is a travel document issued to foreign nationals enabling them to clear border controls. They traditionally take the form of an adhesive sticker or, occasionally, a stamp affixed to a page in an individual's passport or equivalent document. Visas policies different purposes depending on the priorities of each jurisdiction, ranging from ensuring that visitors do not pose a national security risk or have sufficient financial resources to simply functioning as a tax on tourists, as is the case with countries like Mauritius and other leisure destinations which issue visas on arrival, electronic visas, or electronic travel authorisations (ETAs) to most or all visitors. Visas may include limits on the duration of the foreigner's stay, areas within the state they may enter, the dates they may enter, the number of permitted visits, or an individual's right to work in the state in question.

Many countries in Asia have liberalised their visa controls in recent years to encourage transnational business and tourism. For example, India, Myanmar, and Sri Lanka have introduced electronic visas to make border control less arduous for business travellers and tourists. Malaysia has introduced similar eVisa facilities, and has also introduced the eNTRI programme to expedite clearance for Indian citizens and Chinese citizens from the mainland. Thailand regularly issues visas on arrival to many non-exempt visitors at major ports of entry in order to encourage tourism. Indonesia, in recent years, has progressively liberalised its visa regime, no longer requiring visas or on-arrival visas from most nationals, while Singapore has signed visa waiver agreements with many countries in recent years and has introduced electronic visa facilities for Indians, Eastern Europeans, and mainland Chinese. This trend towards visa liberalisation in Asia is part of the regional trend toward social and economic globalisation that has been linked to heightened economic growth.[276]

Certain countries, predominantly but not exclusively in western Europe and the Americas, issue working holiday visas for younger visitors to supplement their travel funds by working minor jobs. These are especially common in members of the European Union, and elsewhere in Europe.

Saudi Arabia issues a special category visa for people on religious pilgrimage. Similar policies are in force in other countries with significant religious sites.

Certain jurisdictions impose special visa requirements on journalists. Countries that require such visas include Cuba, China, North Korea, Saudi Arabia, America and Zimbabwe.

As a consequence of awkward border situations created by the fall of the Soviet Union, certain former members of the USSR and their neighbours maintain special visa exemption policies for travellers transiting across international boundaries between two points in a single country. For instance, Russia permits vehicles to transit across the Saatse Boot between the Estonian villages of Lutepää and Sesniki without any visa or border checkpoint provided that they do not stop. Similar provisions are made for the issuance of Facilitated Rail Transit Documents by Schengen Area members for travel between Kaliningrad Oblast and the Russian mainland, enabling Russian citizens to travel to and from the exclave without a passport or visa.

Many countries let individuals clear border controls using foreign visas.[an] Notably, the Philippines permits nationals of India and China can use any of several foreign visas to clear border controls.[ao] In order to encourage tourism by transit passengers, South Korea permits passengers in transit who would otherwise require a South Korean visa to enter for up to thirty days utilising an Australian, Canadian, American, or Schengen visa. Uniquely, the British territory of Bermuda has ceased to issue its own visas and instead requires that travellers either clear immigration visa-free in one of the three countries (Canada, America, and United Kingdom) to/from which it has direct flights, or hold a visa for one of them.

Electronic visas and electronic travel authorisations

Beginning in the 2000s, many countries introduced e-visas and electronic travel authorisations (ETAs) as an alternative to traditional visas. An ETA is a kind of pre-arrival registration, which may or may not be officially classified as a visa depending on the issuing jurisdiction, required for foreign travellers who are exempted from obtaining a full visa. In contrast to the procedures that typically apply in regard to proper visas, per which the traveller normally has no recourse if rejected, if an ETA is rejected the traveller can choose to apply for a visa instead. In contrast, an e-visa is simply a visa that travellers can apply for and receive online without visiting the issuing state's consular mission or visa agency. The following jurisdictions require certain categories of international travellers to hold an ETA or e-visa in order to clear border controls upon arrival:

Nationality and travel history

Many nations implement border controls restricting the entry of people of certain nationalities or who have visited certain countries. For instance Georgia refuses entry to holders of passports issued by the Republic of China.[303] Similarly, since April 2017, nationals of Bangladesh, Pakistan, Sudan, Syria, Yemen, and Iran have been banned from entering the parts of eastern Libya under the control of the Tobruk government.[303][304][305] The majority of Arab countries, as well as Iran and Malaysia, ban Israeli citizens,[303] however exceptional entry to Malaysia is possible with approval from the Ministry of Home Affairs.[306] Certain countries may also restrict entry to those with Israeli stamps or visas in their passports. As a result of tension over the Artsakh dispute, Azerbaijan currently forbids entry to Armenian citizens as well as to individuals with proof of travel to Artsakh.

Between September 2017 and January 2021, the United States did not issue new visas to nationals of Iran, North Korea, Libya, Somalia, Syria, or Yemen pursuant to restrictions imposed by the Trump administration,[307] which were subsequently repealed by the Biden administration on 20 January 2021.[308] While in force, the restrictions were conditional and could be lifted if the countries affected meet the required security standards specified by the Trump administration, and dual citizens of these countries could still enter if they presented a passport from a non-designated country.

Prescreening

A significant number of countries maintain prescreening facilities for passengers departing from other jurisdictions to clear border controls prior to arrival and thereby skip checkpoints upon arrival. Aside from simplifying arrival formalities, this enables border control authorities to deny entry to potentially inadmissible travellers prior to their embarking and to reduce congestion at border checkpoints located at ports of arrival.

Map of the upcoming Rapid Transit system.

Expedited border controls

Certain countries and trade blocs establish programmes for high-frequency and/or low risk travellers to expedite border controls, subjecting them to lighter or automated checks, or priority border control facilities. In some countries, citizens or residents have access to automated facilities not available to foreigners. The following expedited border control programmes are currently in effect:

Local border traffic

The local border traffic is the flow of travellers that reside within the area surrounding a controlled international or internal border. In many cases local border traffic is subject to special regulations to expedite local border traffic.[347] Depending on the particular border in question, these measures may be restricted to local residents, implemented as a blanket regional visa waiver by one jurisdiction for nationals of the other, restricted to frequent cross-border travellers, or available to individuals lawfully present in one jurisdiction seeking to visit the other.

European Union Schengen Area: Schengen states which share an external land border with a non-Schengen state are authorised by EU Regulation 1931/2006 to conclude bilateral agreements with neighbouring countries implementing a simplified local border traffic regime.[348] Such agreements define a border area and provide for the issuance of local border traffic permits to residents of the border area that may be used to cross the EU external border within the border area.

Relaxed control in near-border areas

Border control organisations by country

Border control is generally the responsibility of specialised government organisations which oversee various aspects their jurisdiction's border control policies, including customs, immigration policy, border guard, biosecurity measures. Official designations, division of responsibilities, and command structures of these organisations vary considerably and some countries split border control functions across multiple agencies.

US customs and border officers boarding a ship at the border.

Controversies

Certain border control policies of various countries have been the subject of controversy and public debate.

Lhotshampa refugees in Beldangi camp in Nepal. The man is holding a Bhutanese passport.
Children detained by the American government pictured in a wire-mesh cage. (Photo taken by United States Customs and Border Protection)
ProPublica recording of crying children separated from their families.

Gallery

See also

Notes

  1. ^ For example, Ann Dummett, an activist for racial equality, criticised the legislation, saying that "there is no indication at all in our nationality law of ethnic origin being a criterion. But the purpose of the law since 1981, and the manner in which it is implemented, make sure that ethnic origin is in fact and in practice a deciding factor."[19] Ms Dummett also said that "the 1981 Nationality Act in effect gave full British citizenship to a group of whom at least 96% are white people, and the other, less favourable forms of British nationality to groups who are at least 98% non-white"[20]
  2. ^ In March 1996, there was a submission to the Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination of United Nations. The committee criticised the arrangements of the BN(O) nationality under "Principal subjects of concern": "The Government's statement that South Asian residents of Hong Kong are granted some form of British nationality, whether that of a British National Overseas (BNO) or a British Overseas Citizen (BOC), so that no resident of Hong Kong would be left stateless following the transfer of sovereignty is noted with interest. It is, however, a matter of concern that such status does not grant the bearer the right of abode in the United Kingdom and contrasts with the full citizenship status conferred upon a predominantly white population living in another dependent territory. It is noted that most of the persons holding BNO or BOC status are Asians and that judgements on applications for citizenship appear to vary according to the country of origin, which leads to the assumption that this practice reveals elements of racial discrimination."[21]
  3. ^ For example, the legislative councilor Henrietta Ip criticised the idea of British National (Overseas) and again urged the UK Parliament, to grant full British citizenship to Hong Kong's British nationals in the council meeting held on 5 July 1989, saying that "we were born and live under British rule on British land.... It is therefore... our right to ask that you should give us back a place of abode so that we can continue to live under British rule on British land if we so wish.... I represent most of all those who live here to firmly request and demand you to grant us the right to full British citizenship so that we can, if we so wish, live in the United Kingdom, our Motherland... I say to you that the right of abode in the United Kingdom is the best and the only definitive guarantee.... With your failure to give us such a guarantee, reluctant as I may, I must advise the people of Hong Kong, and urgently now, each to seek for themselves a home of last resort even if they have to leave to do so. I do so because, as a legislator, my duty is with the people first and the stability and prosperity of Hong Kong second, although the two are so interdependent on each other...."
  4. ^ The legislation is sometimes compared with Macau, a former colony of Portugal, where many residents of Chinese descent were granted right of abode in Portugal when Macau was still under colonial rule. They were not deprived of their right of abode after the transfer of sovereignty over Macau in 1999, their Portuguese passports and citizenship are valid and inheritable, and it turned out that many of them still choose to stay in Macau.
  5. ^ Then Shadow Home Secretary, Jack Straw, said in a letter to the then Home Secretary Michael Howard dated 30 January 1997 that a claim that British National (Overseas) status amounts to British nationality "is pure sophistry".[22]
  6. ^ The Economist also wrote critically in an article published on 3 July 1997 that "the failure to offer citizenship to most of Hong Kong's residents was shameful", and "it was the height of cynicism to hand 6m people over to a regime of proven brutality without allowing them any means to move elsewhere." The article commented that the real reason that the new Labour government still refused to give full British citizenship to other British Dependent Territories Citizens in around 1997 – because the United Kingdom was waiting until Hong Kong had been disposed of – "would be seen as highly cynical", as Baroness Symons, a Foreign Office minister, has conceded.[23]
  7. ^ Bantustans within the borders of South Africa were classified as "self-governing" or "independent" and theoretically had some sovereign powers. Independent Bantustans (Transkei, Bophuthatswana, Venda, and Ciskei; also known as the TBVC states) were intended to be fully sovereign. In reality, they had no economic infrastructure worth mentioning and with few exceptions encompassed swaths of disconnected territory. This meant all the Bantustans were little more than puppet states controlled by South Africa. Throughout the existence of the independent Bantustans, South Africa remained the only country to recognise their independence. Nevertheless, internal organisations of many countries, as well as the South African government, lobbied for their recognition. For example, upon the foundation of Transkei, the Swiss-South African Association encouraged the Swiss government to recognise the new state. In 1976, leading up to a United States House of Representatives resolution urging the President to not recognise Transkei, the South African government intensely lobbied lawmakers to oppose the bill. While the bill fell short of its needed two-thirds vote, a simple majority of lawmakers nevertheless supported the resolution.[31] Each TBVC state extended recognition to the other independent Bantustans while South Africa showed its commitment to the notion of TBVC sovereignty by building embassies in the TBVC capitals.
  8. ^ In South Africa, pass laws were designed to segregate the population, manage urbanisation, and allocate migrant labour. Also known as the natives law, pass laws severely limited the movements of not only blacks, but other peoples as well (e.g. Asians) by requiring them to carry pass books when outside their homelands or designated areas. Before the 1950s, this legislation largely applied to African men, and attempts to apply it to women in the 1910s and 1950s were met with significant protests. Pass laws would be one of the dominant features of the country's apartheid system, until it was effectively ended in 1986. The first internal passports in South Africa were introduced on 27 June 1797 by the Earl Macartney in an attempt to prevent natives from entering the Cape Colony.[32] In 1896 the South African Republic brought in two pass laws which required Africans to carry a metal badge and only those employed by a master were permitted to remain on the Rand. Those entering a "labour district" needed a special pass which entitled them to remain for three days.[33] The Natives (Urban Areas) Act of 1923 deemed urban areas in South Africa as "white" and required all black African men in cities and towns to carry around permits called "passes" at all times. Anyone found without a pass would be arrested immediately and sent to a rural area. It was replaced in 1945 by the Natives (Urban Areas) Consolidation Act, which imposed "influx control" on black men, and also set up guidelines for removing people deemed to be living idle lives from urban areas. This act outlined requirements for African peoples' "qualification" to reside legally in white metropolitan areas.[34]
  9. ^ Thousands of Gujaratis returned to Uganda after Yoweri Museveni, the subsequent head of state of Uganda, criticised Idi Amin's policies and invited them to return.[30] According to Museveni, "Gujaratis have played a lead role in Uganda's social and industrial development. I knew that this community can do wonders for my country and they have been doing it for last many decades." The Gujaratis have resurfaced in Uganda and helped rebuild the economy of East Africa, and are financially well settled.[30][35]
  10. ^ The 145 states which are parties to the convention are required to provide travel documents to refugees lawfully residing within their territory as per Article 28 of the convention. Refugee travel documents issued pursuant to Article 28 by certain states cannot be used for travel to the bearer's country of citizenship,[36]
  11. ^ a b c Normally, the baseline from which the territorial sea is measured is the low-water line along the coast as marked on large-scale charts officially recognised by the coastal state. This is either the low-water mark closest to the shore, or alternatively it may be an unlimited distance from permanently exposed land, provided that some portion of elevations exposed at low tide but covered at high tide (like mud flats) is within 5.6 km of permanently exposed land. Straight baselines can alternatively be defined connecting fringing islands along a coast, across the mouths of rivers, or with certain restrictions across the mouths of bays. In this case, a bay is defined as "a well-marked indentation whose penetration is in such proportion to the width of its mouth as to contain land-locked waters and constitute more than a mere curvature of the coast. An indentation shall not, however, be regarded as a bay unless its area is as large as, or larger than, that of the semi-circle whose diameter is a line drawn across the mouth of that indentation". The baseline across the bay must also be no more than 44 km in length.
  12. ^ All "archipelagic waters" within the outermost islands of an archipelagic state such as Indonesia or the Philippines are also considered internal waters, and are treated the same with the exception that innocent passage through them must be allowed. However, archipelagic states may designate certain sea lanes through these waters.
  13. ^ All goods transported by water between American ports must be carried on ships that have been constructed in the United States and that fly the American flag, are owned by American citizens, and are crewed by American citizens and/or permanent residents
  14. ^ a b c d e The area under the definition consists of:
  15. ^ Defined as: the carriage of goods or passengers from any port or place in India to any other port or place in India or Sri Lanka[54]
  16. ^ For instance, a Boston-Toronto-Seattle itinerary.[56] Such services are currently considered to constitute cabotage and are not permitted.[57] In 2002, American authorities fined Asiana Airlines for selling tickets from the mainland US to Guam and Saipan via Seoul.[58]
  17. ^ About 20 countries and regions now have such zones including Canada, India,[62] Japan, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Finland, Norway, the United Kingdom, People's Republic of China, South Korea, Republic of China, America, Sweden, Iceland and Iran. Russia and North Korea have unofficial ADIZs as well.[59][60][63]
  18. ^ Hungary completed the construction of 175 kilometres of fencing between with Serbia in September 2015 and on the border with Croatia in October 2015 to stop unauthorised border crossings.[116] In April 2016, Hungarian government announced construction of reinforcements of the barrier, which it described as "temporary".[117] In July 2016, nearly 1,300 migrants were "stuck" on the Serbian side of the border.[118] In August 2016, Orbán announced that Hungary will build another larger barrier on its southern border.[119] On 28 April 2017, the Hungarian government announced it had completed a second fence, 155 kilometres long with Serbia.[120][121] On 24 September 2015, Hungary began building fence on its border with Slovenia, in the area around TornyiszentmiklósPince border crossing.[122] The razor wire obstacle was removed two days later.[123]
  19. ^ According to the July 1953 Korean Armistice Agreement civil shipping was supposed to be permissible in the Han River estuary and allow Seoul to be connected to the Yellow Sea (West Sea) via the Han River.[137] However, both Koreas and the UNC failed to make this happen. The South Korean government ordered the construction of the Ara Canal to finally connect Seoul to the Yellow Sea, which was completed in 2012. Seoul was effectively landlocked from the ocean until 2012. The biggest limitation of the Ara Canal is it is too narrow to handle any vessels except small tourist boats and recreational boats, so Seoul still cannot receive large commercial ships or passenger ships in its port.
  20. ^ The peacekeeping force currently has its headquarters at the abandoned Nicosia International Airport, where the majority of peacekeepers are based and where talks between the two governments are held.
  21. ^ In the ASEAN region, a large portion of the Singaporean, Malaysian, and Bruneian population hold OCI status. Large OCI communities also exist in North America, the United Kingdom, Australia, and New Zealand, as well as in many African nations (particularly South Africa, Madagascar, and members of the East African Community). OCI status exempts holders from immigration controls generally imposed upon others of the same nationality.
  22. ^ It is issued by the United Kingdom to Commonwealth citizens with a grandparent born in the United Kingdom, Channel Islands or Isle of Man who wish to work in the United Kingdom. It is used mainly by Australians, New Zealanders, Canadians, and South Africans of British descent working or studying in the United Kingdom.[150]
  23. ^ The Virgin Islands follows the visa policy applicable in the mainland but is a customs-free area meaning that there are customs checks for passengers travelling from the islands to the mainland or Puerto Rico. Guam and the Northern Marianas maintain their own customs and visa waiver policies, meaning that flights between Guam and Honolulu, the only air link to an American state, require immigration checks which are conducted prior to departure. American Samoa maintains a distinct visa and customs policy meaning that flights to Honolulu are treated as international arrivals. Access to the United States Minor Outlying Islands is governed by a variety of permits issued by the Office of Insular Affairs or the United States Fish and Wildlife Service depending on the territory
  24. ^ While Hawaii is subject to the same visa and customs controls as the mainland and Puerto Rico, controls are imposed on passengers travelling to and from the state for the purpose of agricultural policy[160])
  25. ^ For example, inter-state travel in Australia was restricted in 2020 due to the COVID-19 epidemic, for the first time since the 1918 flu pandemic.
  26. ^ In India, special permits are required to travel across much of the country's north-east and requirements may vary within a given state. Special provisions are occasionally made for individuals from Bhutan or Nepal proceeding to or from their home country. Additionally, individuals arriving in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands from elsewhere in India receive passport stamps (see gallery at end of the section), even though only foreigners are typically subject to permit requirements. Permits issued for minority regions in India include:In the Tibet Autonomous Region (Tibetan: བོད་རང་སྐྱོང་ལྗོངས།; Chinese: 西藏自治区), two categories of permits are issued:
    • The Tibet Travel Permits (Chinese: 外国人入藏函 foreigners' entrance letter) required for all foreigners (as well as Taiwanese nationals from the Republic of China) to enter the region
    • The Alien Travel Permit required for holders of the Tibet Travel Permit to travel outside major urban and tourist areas of the region
    • The Military Permit (or Border Permit)[192] is required for travel to Ngari (Tibetan: མངའ་རིས་ས་ཁུལ་; Chinese: 阿里), Nyingchi (Tibetan: ཉིང་ཁྲི་ས།; Chinese: 林芝), and Nagqu (Tibetan: ནག་ཆུ།; Chinese: 那曲)
    Additionally, special permits are issued to nationals of India and Bhutan for religious pilgrimages to Hindu and Buddhist holy sites in the Tibet Autonomous Region.[192]
  27. ^ For example, Hong Kong Permanent Identity Card or Macau Identity Card and Home Return Permit (simplified Chinese: 回乡证; traditional Chinese: 回鄉證; pinyin: Huíxiāngzhèng) are required for Hong Kong or Macau Permanent Residents who are Chinese citizens to cross the border, whilst mainlanders require a Two-Way Permit (Chinese: 双程证).
  28. ^ The following documents are currently issued for this purpose:
    • For mainlanders emigrating to either of the two Special Administrative Regions, authorities in the mainland issue the One Way Travel Permit (Chinese: 单程证; pinyin: Dānchéngzhèng). As the policy is designed to curtail emigration from the mainland rather than immigration to either SAR, issuance is exclusively the responsibility of authorities on the mainland.
    • Since September 2018, authorities in the mainland have issued the Residence Permit for Hong Kong, Macao, and Taiwan Residents (Chinese: 港澳台居民居住证; pinyin: Gǎng-Aò-Tái Jūmín Jūzhùzhèng) authorising Chinese citizens from Hong Kong, Macau, and Taiwanese nationals to reside in the mainland. The permit is designed to resemble the national identity card issued to individuals with household registration on the mainland and enables holders to access public and private sector services that require a national identity card number.
  29. ^ Nationals of the following countries are ineligible for the SEZ visa:[195]
  30. ^ Non-visa-exempt ASEAN countries are:
  31. ^ Documents required for travel between the PRC and ROC are:
  32. ^ These are Greenland and the Faroe Islands. These areas do not maintain strict immigration controls with the Schengen Area, but border controls are sporadically enforced for customs purposes.
  33. ^
  34. ^ This does not apply to accompanying spouses and minor children or members of travel groups. In addition, a valid identification document has to be produced to the hotel manager or staff.[216]
  35. ^ For example, in April 2010, Malta introduced temporary checks due to Pope Benedict XVI's visit.[219] It reimposed checks in 2015 in the weeks surrounding the Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting. In response to the European migrant crisis, several countries set up internal controls. In 2019, Denmark, worried about the bombings in Sweden, introduced passport controls to Swedish citizens for the first time since the 1950s.[220]
  36. ^ Countries collecting fingerprints at checkpoints include America, Argentina,[231] Brunei, Cambodia,[232] China,[233] Ethiopia,[234] Ghana, Guinea,[235] India, Japan,[236][237] Kenya (both fingerprints and a photo are taken),[238] Malaysia upon entry and departure,[239]Paraguay, Saudi Arabia,[240] Singapore, South Korea,[241] Taiwan, Thailand,[242] and Uganda.[243]
  37. ^ Border Force officers do not carry out systematic checks of travel documents on passengers travelling to a destination outside the Common Travel Area by air, rail or sea (though from time to time spot checks are carried out – in this case passports are not stamped); instead, airline/rail/ferry companies obtain passengers' travel document information at check-in or on departure and transmit the information electronically to the UK Border Force[260]
  38. ^ In 1960, local border traffic on the Yugoslavia — Italy border in Istria registered almost seven million crossings in both directions.[267] In 1977 Yugoslavia had 55 local border traffic agreements with the neighboring countries, including 7 with Italy, 11 with Austria, 8 with Hungary, 10 with Romania, 8 with Bulgaria, 5 with Greece.[268]
  39. ^ The local governments of most inhabited British Overseas Territories issue passports to British Overseas Territories citizens resident holding belonger status in the territory concerned, while the Chinese Special Administrative Regions of Hong Kong and Macau issue passports to Chinese citizens holding permanent residence in the region concerned.
  40. ^ For instance, the following jurisdictions permit visitors to use American visas to clear border controls:
    •  Albania — 90 days;
    •  Antigua and Barbuda — 30 days; USD 100 visa waiver fee applies.
    •  Belize — 30 days; USD 50 visa waiver fee applies.
    •  Bosnia and Herzegovina — 30 days;[277]
    •  Canada — up to 6 months; only for citizens of Brazil, arriving by air with Electronic Travel Authorisation (ETA).
    •  Chile — 90 days; for nationals of China only.
    •  Colombia — 90 days; applicable to certain nationalities only.
    •  Costa Rica — 30 days or less if the visa is about to expire; must hold a multiple entry visa.
    •  Dominican Republic — 90 days;
    •  El Salvador — 90 days; not applicable to all nationalities.
    •  Georgia — 90 days within any 180-day period;
    •  Guatemala — 90 days; not applicable to all nationalities.
    •  Honduras — 90 days; not applicable to all nationalities.
    •  Jamaica — 30 days; not applicable to all nationalities.
    •  Mexico — 180 days;[278][279]
    •  Montenegro — 30 days;
    •  Nicaragua — 90 days; not applicable to all nationalities.
    •  North Macedonia — 15 days;
    •  Oman — certain nationalities can obtain an electronic Omani visa if holding a valid American visa.
    •  Panama — 30/180 days; must hold a visa valid for at least 2 more entries.
    •  Peru — 180 days; applicable to nationals of China and India only.
    •  Philippines — 7 days for nationals of China from the mainland; 14 days for nationals of India.
    •  Qatar — Non-visa-free nationals can obtain an ETA for 30 days if holding a valid American visa.
    • Taiwan Republic of China[n] (Taiwan) — certain nationalities can obtain an online travel authorisation if holding a valid American visa.
    •  São Tomé and Príncipe — 15 days;
    •  Serbia — 90 days;
    •  South Korea — 30 days;
    •  Turkey — certain nationalities can obtain an electronic Turkish visa if holding a valid American visa.
    •  UAE — Visa on arrival for 14 days; for nationals of India only. (Applicable for Indian citizens holding American Green Card.)[280]
  41. ^ Nationals of China from the Mainland travelling as tourists and holding a valid visa issued by Australia, Canada, Japan, America, or a Schengen Area state may enter and stay without a visa for up to 7 days. Nationals of India holding a valid tourist, business or resident visa issued by Australia, Canada, Japan, Singapore, United Kingdom, America, or a Schengen Area state may enter and stay without a visa for up to 14 days. They may enter from any port of entry.[281]
  42. ^ This includes nationals of:[291]
  43. ^
  44. ^
  45. ^ Eligible jurisdictions are as follows:[295]
  46. ^ A holder of an EVW authorisation can visit and/or study in the UK for up to 6 months without a visa. An EVW is only valid for one entry, and a new EVW must be obtained each time an eligible person wishes to enter the UK to visit and/or study for up to 6 months without a visa. The EVW is valid for visits up to 90 days to Ireland once a holder has cleared immigration in the United Kingdom.
  47. ^ In order to facilitate juxtaposed controls, the United Kingdom and France established or "control zones" at both ends of the Channel Tunnel, per which British authorities exercise authority within the control zone on the French side, and French authorities exercise authority within the control zone on the UK side, under a system of juxtaposed controls. Violations in the control zone are treated as if they occurred within the territory of the adjoining state within that zone, and extradition is not required to remove a violator to the operating state for prosecution. Officers of the adjoining state may carry firearms within the control zone.[312]
  48. ^ Currently operational rail checkpoints include:
  49. ^
  50. ^ The following CARICOM jurisdictions are participating in the programme:[324]
  51. ^ Holders of the following foreign passports are eligible:[328]
  52. ^
  53. ^ Foreign passport holders eligible to register include:
  54. ^ a b c The following airports are equipped with automated kiosks (except where otherwise stated, all participating airports are located in United States or its territories):[clarification needed][342]

    The indicates there are no Global Entry enrollment centres at these sites. Enrolment centres in Canada are NEXUS enrolment centres staffed by U.S. and Canadian border control officers

  55. ^ As a standalone document, the BCC allows Mexican citizens to visit border areas in the U.S. when entering by land or sea directly from Mexico for less than 72 hours.[349] The document also functions as a full B1/B2 visa when presented with a valid Mexican passport.[350]
  56. ^
  57. ^
  58. ^ The policy proved extremely unpopular with the public, with approximately 25% of Americans supporting the policy, less than any recent major piece of legislation.[372] The detainment of children by the U.S. government has been compared to the Nazi concentration camps by some observers and politicians.[373][374]
  59. ^ The policy has been condemned by the American Academy of Pediatrics, the American College of Physicians and the American Psychiatric Association.[375] Together, they represent more than 250,000 doctors in the United States.[376] Irwin Redlener, who co-founded Children's Health Fund, called the policy "dehumanising" and described it as a form of child abuse.[377] A number of concerned researchers and clinicians signed an open letter to Homeland Security Secretary Nielsen calling on her to end the migrant child separations, writing, "Decades of psychological and brain research have demonstrated that forced parental separation and placement in incarceration-like facilities can have profound immediate, long-term, and irreparable harm on infant and child development."[378]
  60. ^ The policy has been condemned or criticised by:

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Further reading

External links