Art Déco , abreviatura de Arts décoratifs ( literalmente , " artes decorativas " ), [1] es un estilo de artes visuales, arquitectura y diseño de productos que apareció por primera vez en París en la década de 1910 (justo antes de la Primera Guerra Mundial ), [2] y floreció en los Estados Unidos y Europa durante la década de 1920 hasta principios de la de 1930. A través del estilo y el diseño del exterior y el interior de cualquier cosa, desde grandes estructuras hasta pequeños objetos, incluida la apariencia de las personas (ropa, moda y joyas), el art déco ha influido en puentes, edificios (desde rascacielos hasta cines), barcos, transatlánticos , trenes, automóviles, camiones, autobuses, muebles y objetos cotidianos, incluidas radios y aspiradoras. [3]
El art déco debe su nombre a la Exposición Internacional de Artes Decorativas e Industriales Modernas ( Exposition internationale des arts décoratifs et industriels modernes ) celebrada en París en 1925. [4] El art déco tiene su origen en las formas geométricas audaces de la Secesión vienesa y el cubismo . Desde sus inicios, estuvo influenciado por los colores brillantes del fauvismo y de los Ballets Rusos , y los estilos exotizados del arte de China , Japón , India , Persia , el antiguo Egipto y los mayas .
Durante su apogeo, el Art Déco representaba el lujo, el glamour, la exuberancia y la fe en el progreso social y tecnológico. El movimiento se caracterizó por el uso de materiales raros y caros, como el ébano y el marfil, y una artesanía exquisita. También introdujo nuevos materiales, como el cromado , el acero inoxidable y el plástico. En Nueva York, el Empire State Building , el Chrysler Building y otros edificios de las décadas de 1920 y 1930 son monumentos a este estilo.
En la década de 1930, durante la Gran Depresión , el Art Déco se fue suavizando gradualmente. En esa misma década apareció una forma más elegante del estilo, llamada Streamline Moderne , que presentaba formas curvas y superficies lisas y pulidas. [5] El Art Déco fue un estilo verdaderamente internacional, pero su dominio terminó con el comienzo de la Segunda Guerra Mundial y el surgimiento de los estilos estrictamente funcionales y sin adornos de la arquitectura moderna y el estilo arquitectónico internacional que le siguió. [6] [7]
El Art Déco tomó su nombre, abreviatura de Arts Décoratifs , de la Exposición Internacional de Artes Decorativas e Industriales Modernas celebrada en París en 1925, [4] aunque los diversos estilos que lo caracterizaron ya habían aparecido en París y Bruselas antes de la Primera Guerra Mundial .
El término Arts décoratifs se utilizó por primera vez en Francia en 1858 en el Bulletin de la Société française de photographie . [8] En 1868, el periódico Le Figaro utilizó el término objets d'art décoratifs para los objetos de escenografía creados para el Théâtre de l'Opéra . [9] [10] [11] En 1875, el gobierno francés otorgó oficialmente el estatus de artistas a los diseñadores de muebles, textiles, joyeros, trabajadores del vidrio y otros artesanos. En respuesta, la École royale gratuite de dessin (Real Escuela Libre de Diseño), fundada en 1766 bajo el reinado de Luis XVI para formar a artistas y artesanos en oficios relacionados con las bellas artes, pasó a llamarse École nationale des arts décoratifs ( Escuela Nacional de Artes Decorativas). Tomó su nombre actual, ENSAD ( École Nationale Supérieure des Arts Décoratifs ), en 1920.
El término art déco no apareció impreso hasta 1966, en el título de la primera exposición moderna sobre el tema, celebrada por el Museo de Artes Decorativas de París, Les Années 25: Art déco, Bauhaus, Stijl, Esprit nouveau , que abarcó una variedad de estilos importantes en las décadas de 1920 y 1930. [12] El término se utilizó luego en un artículo de periódico de 1966 de Hillary Gelson en The Times (Londres, 12 de noviembre), que describía los diferentes estilos de la exposición. [13]
El art déco ganó popularidad como una etiqueta estilística ampliamente aplicada en 1968 cuando el historiador Bevis Hillier publicó el primer libro académico importante sobre él, Art déco de los años 20 y 30. [ 3] Señaló que el término ya estaba siendo utilizado por los comerciantes de arte, y cita a The Times (2 de noviembre de 1966) y un ensayo llamado Les Arts Déco en la revista Elle (noviembre de 1967) como ejemplos. [14] En 1971, organizó una exposición en el Instituto de Artes de Minneapolis , que detalla en su libro El mundo del art déco . [15] [16]
En su época, el Art Déco fue etiquetado con otros nombres, como estilo moderno , moderno , modernista o estilo contemporáneo , y no fue reconocido como un estilo distinto y homogéneo. [7]
Los nuevos materiales y tecnologías, especialmente el hormigón armado , fueron clave para el desarrollo y la aparición del Art Déco. La primera casa de hormigón fue construida en 1853 en los suburbios de París por François Coignet. En 1877 Joseph Monier introdujo la idea de reforzar el hormigón con una malla de varillas de hierro en forma de rejilla. En 1893, Auguste Perret construyó el primer garaje de hormigón en París, luego un edificio de apartamentos, una casa y, finalmente, en 1913, el Théâtre des Champs-Élysées . El teatro fue denunciado por un crítico como el "Zeppelin de la Avenida Montaigne", una supuesta influencia germánica, copiada de la Secesión vienesa . A partir de entonces, la mayoría de los edificios Art Déco se hicieron de hormigón armado, lo que dio una mayor libertad de forma y menos necesidad de reforzar pilares y columnas. Perret también fue pionero en cubrir el hormigón con baldosas de cerámica , tanto para protección como para decoración. El arquitecto Le Corbusier aprendió por primera vez los usos del hormigón armado trabajando como dibujante en el estudio de Perret. [17]
Otras nuevas tecnologías que fueron importantes para el Art Déco fueron los nuevos métodos de producción de vidrio , que era menos costoso y permitía ventanas mucho más grandes y resistentes, y la producción en masa de aluminio , que se utilizó para la construcción y los marcos de las ventanas y, más tarde, por Corbusier, Warren McArthur y otros, para muebles ligeros.
Los arquitectos de la Secesión vienesa (formada en 1897), especialmente Josef Hoffmann , tuvieron una notable influencia en el art déco. Su Palacio Stoclet , en Bruselas (1905-1911), fue un prototipo del estilo art déco, con volúmenes geométricos, simetría, líneas rectas, hormigón cubierto con placas de mármol, ornamentos finamente esculpidos e interiores lujosos, incluidos frisos de mosaico de Gustav Klimt . Hoffmann también fue fundador de la Wiener Werkstätte (1903-1932), una asociación de artesanos y diseñadores de interiores que trabajaban en el nuevo estilo. Esto se convirtió en el modelo para la Compagnie des arts français , creada en 1919, que reunió a André Mare y Louis Süe , los primeros diseñadores y decoradores art déco franceses destacados. [18]
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El surgimiento del Art Déco estuvo estrechamente relacionado con el ascenso del estatus de los artistas decorativos, quienes hasta finales del siglo XIX eran considerados simplemente artesanos. El término arts décoratifs se había inventado en 1875 [ cita requerida ] , otorgando a los diseñadores de muebles, textiles y otros elementos decorativos un estatus oficial. La Société des artistes décorateurs (Sociedad de Artistas Decorativos), o SAD, se fundó en 1901, y los artistas decorativos obtuvieron los mismos derechos de autoría que los pintores y escultores. Un movimiento similar se desarrolló en Italia. La primera exposición internacional dedicada enteramente a las artes decorativas, la Esposizione Internazionale d'Arte Decorativa Moderna , se celebró en Turín en 1902. Varias nuevas revistas dedicadas a las artes decorativas se fundaron en París, entre ellas Arts et décoration y L'Art décoratif moderne . Se introdujeron secciones de artes decorativas en los salones anuales de la Société des artistes français y, más tarde, en el Salon d'Automne . El nacionalismo francés también influyó en el resurgimiento de las artes decorativas, ya que los diseñadores franceses se sintieron desafiados por las crecientes exportaciones de muebles alemanes menos costosos. En 1911, la SAD propuso una nueva e importante exposición internacional de artes decorativas en 1912. No se permitirían copias de estilos antiguos, solo obras modernas. La exposición se pospuso hasta 1914; y luego, debido a la guerra, hasta 1925, cuando dio su nombre a toda la familia de estilos conocida como "déco". [19]
Los grandes almacenes parisinos y los diseñadores de moda también desempeñaron un papel importante en el auge del Art Déco. Empresas prominentes como la firma de platería Christofle , el diseñador de vidrio René Lalique y los joyeros Louis Cartier y Boucheron comenzaron a diseñar productos en estilos más modernos. [20] [21] A partir de 1900, los grandes almacenes reclutaron artistas decorativos para trabajar en sus estudios de diseño. La decoración del Salón de Otoño de 1912 fue confiada a los grandes almacenes Printemps , [22] [23] y ese año creó su propio taller, Primavera . [23] En 1920, Primavera empleaba a más de 300 artistas, cuyos estilos iban desde versiones actualizadas de los muebles Luis XIV , Luis XVI y especialmente Luis Felipe fabricados por Louis Süe y el taller Primavera , hasta formas más modernas del taller de los grandes almacenes Au Louvre . Otros diseñadores, entre ellos Émile-Jacques Ruhlmann y Paul Follot, se negaron a utilizar la producción en masa, insistiendo en que cada pieza se hiciera individualmente. El estilo Art Déco temprano presentaba materiales lujosos y exóticos como el ébano , el marfil y la seda, colores muy brillantes y motivos estilizados , en particular cestas y ramos de flores de todos los colores, lo que le daba un aspecto modernista. [24]
En su nacimiento entre 1910 y 1914, el Art Déco fue una explosión de colores, con tonos brillantes y a menudo contrastantes, frecuentemente en diseños florales, presentados en tapicería de muebles , alfombras, biombos, papel tapiz y telas. Muchas obras coloridas, incluidas sillas y una mesa de Maurice Dufrêne y una brillante alfombra Gobelin de Paul Follot se presentaron en el Salón de los Artistas Decoradores de 1912. En 1912-1913, el diseñador Adrien Karbowsky hizo una silla floral con un diseño de loro para el pabellón de caza del coleccionista de arte Jacques Doucet . [25] Los diseñadores de muebles Louis Süe y André Mare hicieron su primera aparición en la exhibición de 1912, bajo el nombre de Atelier français , combinando telas policromáticas con materiales exóticos y costosos, incluidos el ébano y el marfil. Después de la Primera Guerra Mundial, se convirtieron en una de las firmas de diseño de interiores francesas más importantes, produciendo el mobiliario para los salones y camarotes de primera clase de los transatlánticos franceses . [ 26]
Los tonos vivos del Art Déco provienen de muchas fuentes, incluyendo los exóticos diseños de escenarios de Léon Bakst para los Ballets Rusos , que causaron sensación en París justo antes de la Primera Guerra Mundial. Algunos de los colores se inspiraron en el movimiento fauvismo anterior liderado por Henri Matisse ; otros en el orfismo de pintores como Sonia Delaunay ; [27] otros en el movimiento conocido como Les Nabis , y en la obra del pintor simbolista Odilon Redon, que diseñó mamparas para chimeneas y otros objetos decorativos. Los tonos brillantes fueron una característica del trabajo del diseñador de moda Paul Poiret , cuyo trabajo influyó tanto en la moda como en el diseño de interiores del Art Déco. [26] [28] [29]
El Théâtre des Champs-Élysées (1910-1913), de Auguste Perret , fue el primer edificio emblemático de estilo art déco que se terminó de construir en París. Hasta entonces, el hormigón armado solo se había utilizado en edificios industriales y de apartamentos; Perret había construido el primer edificio de apartamentos moderno de hormigón armado de París en la rue Benjamin Franklin en 1903-04. Henri Sauvage , otro importante arquitecto futuro del estilo art déco, construyó otro en 1904 en el número 7 de la rue Trétaigne (1904). De 1908 a 1910, Le Corbusier, de 21 años, trabajó como dibujante en la oficina de Perret, donde aprendió las técnicas de construcción con hormigón. El edificio de Perret tenía una forma rectangular limpia, una decoración geométrica y líneas rectas, las futuras marcas registradas del art déco. La decoración del teatro también fue revolucionaria; La fachada estaba decorada con altos relieves de Antoine Bourdelle , una cúpula de Maurice Denis , pinturas de Édouard Vuillard y un telón Art Déco de Ker-Xavier Roussel . El teatro se convirtió en el escenario de muchas de las primeras representaciones de los Ballets Rusos . [30] Perret y Sauvage se convirtieron en los arquitectos Art Déco más destacados de París en la década de 1920. [31] [32]
El movimiento artístico conocido como cubismo apareció en Francia entre 1907 y 1912, influyendo en el desarrollo del Art Decó. [30] [27] [28] En Art Deco Complete: The Definitive Guide to the Decorative Arts of the 1920s and 1930s Alastair Duncan escribe "El cubismo, en una forma bastarda u otra, se convirtió en la lengua franca de los artistas decorativos de la época". [28] [33] Los cubistas, ellos mismos bajo la influencia de Paul Cézanne , estaban interesados en la simplificación de las formas a sus elementos geométricos esenciales: el cilindro, la esfera, el cono. [34] [35]
En 1912, los artistas de la Section d'Or expusieron obras considerablemente más accesibles al público en general que el cubismo analítico de Picasso y Braque. El vocabulario cubista estaba destinado a atraer a los diseñadores de moda, muebles e interiores. [27] [29] [35] [36]
En la sección Art Décoratif del Salon d'Automne de 1912, se exhibió una instalación arquitectónica conocida como La Maison Cubiste . [37] [38] La fachada fue diseñada por Raymond Duchamp-Villon . La decoración de la casa fue de André Mare . [39] [40] La Maison Cubiste era una instalación amueblada con una fachada, una escalera, barandillas de hierro forjado, un dormitorio, una sala de estar: el Salon Bourgeois , donde se colgaron pinturas de Albert Gleizes , Jean Metzinger , Marie Laurencin , Marcel Duchamp , Fernand Léger y Roger de La Fresnaye . [41] [42] [43] Miles de espectadores en el salón pasaron por el modelo a escala real. [44]
La fachada de la casa, diseñada por Duchamp-Villon, no era muy radical para los estándares modernos; los dinteles y frontones tenían formas prismáticas, pero por lo demás la fachada se parecía a una casa corriente de la época. Para las dos habitaciones, Mare diseñó el papel pintado, que presentaba rosas estilizadas y motivos florales, junto con la tapicería, los muebles y las alfombras, todos con motivos extravagantes y coloridos. Fue una clara ruptura con la decoración tradicional. El crítico Emile Sedeyn describió la obra de Mare en la revista Art et Décoration : "No se avergüenza de la sencillez, ya que multiplica las flores dondequiera que se puedan poner. El efecto que busca es obviamente de pintoresquismo y alegría. Lo consigue". [45] El elemento cubista lo aportaron las pinturas. La instalación fue atacada por algunos críticos como extremadamente radical, lo que contribuyó a su éxito. [46] Esta instalación arquitectónica se exhibió posteriormente en el Armory Show de 1913 , en la ciudad de Nueva York, Chicago y Boston. [27] [35] [47] [48] [49] Gracias en gran parte a la exposición, el término "cubista" comenzó a aplicarse a cualquier cosa moderna, desde cortes de pelo de mujeres hasta ropa y representaciones teatrales". [46]
La influencia cubista continuó dentro del Art Déco, incluso cuando el Deco se diversificó en muchas otras direcciones. [27] [28]
La geometría esbozada del cubismo se convirtió en moneda corriente en la década de 1920. El desarrollo de la geometría selectiva del cubismo por parte del Art Déco en una gama más amplia de formas llevó el cubismo como taxonomía pictórica a un público mucho más amplio y a un mayor atractivo. (Richard Harrison Martin, Museo Metropolitano de Arte) [50]
El art déco no fue un estilo único, sino una colección de estilos diferentes y a veces contradictorios. En arquitectura, el art déco fue el sucesor (y la reacción) del art nouveau, un estilo que floreció en Europa entre 1895 y 1900, y coexistió con las bellas artes y el neoclásico que predominaban en la arquitectura europea y estadounidense. En 1905, Eugène Grasset escribió y publicó Méthode de Composition Ornementale, Éléments Rectilignes, [52] en el que exploró sistemáticamente los aspectos decorativos (ornamentales) de los elementos geométricos, las formas, los motivos y sus variaciones, en contraste con (y como una desviación de) el estilo art nouveau ondulante de Hector Guimard , tan popular en París unos años antes. Grasset destacó el principio de que varias formas geométricas simples como triángulos y cuadrados son la base de todos los arreglos compositivos. Los edificios de hormigón armado de Auguste Perret y Henri Sauvage, y en particular el Théâtre des Champs-Élysées , ofrecieron una nueva forma de construcción y decoración que fue copiada en todo el mundo. [53]
En cuanto a la decoración, el art déco tomó prestados y utilizó muchos estilos diferentes. Incluían arte premoderno de todo el mundo, que se puede observar en el Museo del Louvre , el Museo del Hombre y el Museo Nacional de Artes de África y Oceanía . También hubo un interés popular por la arqueología debido a las excavaciones en Pompeya , Troya y la tumba del faraón Tutankamón de la XVIII dinastía . Los artistas y diseñadores integraron motivos del antiguo Egipto , África , Mesopotamia , Grecia , Roma , Asia, Mesoamérica y Oceanía con elementos de la era de las máquinas . [57] [58] [59] [60] [61] [62]
Other styles borrowed included Futurism, Orphism, Functionalism, and Modernism in general. Cubism discovers its decorative potential within the Art Deco aesthetic, when transposed from the canvas onto a textile material or wallpaper. Sonia Delaunay conceives her dress models in an abstract and geometric style, "as live paintings or sculptures of living forms". Cubist-like designs are created by Louis Barrilet in the stained-glass windows of the American bar at the Atrium Casino in Dax (1926), but also including names of fashionable cocktails. In architecture, the clear contrast between horizontal and vertical volumes, specific both to Russian Constructivism and the Frank Lloyd Wright-Willem Marinus Dudok line, becomes a common device in articulating Art Deco façades, from individual homes and tenement buildings to cinemas or oil stations.[69][35][57][70][71] Art Deco also used the clashing colours and designs of Fauvism, notably in the work of Henri Matisse and André Derain, inspired the designs of art deco textiles, wallpaper, and painted ceramics.[35] It took ideas from the high fashion vocabulary of the period, which featured geometric designs, chevrons, zigzags, and stylized bouquets of flowers. It was influenced by discoveries in Egyptology, and growing interest in the Orient and in African art. From 1925 onwards, it was often inspired by a passion for new machines, such as airships, automobiles and ocean liners, and by 1930 this influence resulted in the style called Streamline Moderne.[72]
The event that marked the zenith of the style and gave it its name was the International Exhibition of Modern Decorative and Industrial Arts which took place in Paris from April to October in 1925. This was officially sponsored by the French government, and covered a site in Paris of 55 acres, running from the Grand Palais on the right bank to Les Invalides on the left bank, and along the banks of the Seine. The Grand Palais, the largest hall in the city, was filled with exhibits of decorative arts from the participating countries. There were 15,000 exhibitors from twenty different countries, including Austria, Belgium, Czechoslovakia, Denmark, Great Britain, Italy, Japan, the Netherlands, Poland, Spain, Sweden, and the new Soviet Union. Germany was not invited because of tensions after the war; the United States, misunderstanding the purpose of the exhibit, declined to participate. The event was visited by sixteen million people during its seven-month run. The rules of the exhibition required that all work be modern; no historical styles were allowed. The main purpose of the Exhibit was to promote the French manufacturers of luxury furniture, porcelain, glass, metalwork, textiles, and other decorative products. To further promote the products, all the major Paris department stores, and major designers had their own pavilions. The Exposition had a secondary purpose in promoting products from French colonies in Africa and Asia, including ivory and exotic woods.
The Hôtel du Collectionneur was a popular attraction at the Exposition; it displayed the new furniture designs of Emile-Jacques Ruhlmann, as well as Art Deco fabrics, carpets, and a painting by Jean Dupas. The interior design followed the same principles of symmetry and geometric forms which set it apart from Art Nouveau, and bright colours, fine craftsmanship rare and expensive materials which set it apart from the strict functionality of the Modernist style. While most of the pavilions were lavishly decorated and filled with hand-made luxury furniture, two pavilions, those of the Soviet Union and Pavilion de L'Esprit Nouveau, built by the magazine of that name run by Le Corbusier, were built in an austere style with plain white walls and no decoration; they were among the earliest examples of modernist architecture.[73]
In 1925, two different competing schools coexisted within Art Deco: the traditionalists, who had founded the Society of Decorative Artists; included the furniture designer Emile-Jacques Ruhlmann, Jean Dunand, the sculptor Antoine Bourdelle, and designer Paul Poiret; they combined modern forms with traditional craftsmanship and expensive materials. On the other side were the modernists, who increasingly rejected the past and wanted a style based upon advances in new technologies, simplicity, a lack of decoration, inexpensive materials, and mass production. The modernists founded their own organisation, The French Union of Modern Artists, in 1929. Its members included architects Pierre Chareau, Francis Jourdain, Robert Mallet-Stevens, Corbusier, and, in the Soviet Union, Konstantin Melnikov; the Irish designer Eileen Gray; the French designer Sonia Delaunay; and the jewellers Georges Fouquet and Jean Puiforcat. They fiercely attacked the traditional art deco style, which they said was created only for the wealthy, and insisted that well-constructed buildings should be available to everyone, and that form should follow function. The beauty of an object or building resided in whether it was perfectly fit to fulfil its function. Modern industrial methods meant that furniture and buildings could be mass-produced, not made by hand.[74][75][page needed]
The Art Deco interior designer Paul Follot defended Art Deco in this way: "We know that man is never content with the indispensable and that the superfluous is always needed...If not, we would have to get rid of music, flowers, and perfumes..!"[76] However, Le Corbusier was a brilliant publicist for modernist architecture; he stated that a house was simply "a machine to live in", and tirelessly promoted the idea that Art Deco was the past and modernism was the future. Le Corbusier's ideas were gradually adopted by architecture schools, and the aesthetics of Art Deco were abandoned. The same features that made Art Deco popular in the beginning, its craftsmanship, rich materials and ornament, led to its decline. The Great Depression that began in the United States in 1929, and reached Europe shortly afterwards, greatly reduced the number of wealthy clients who could pay for the furnishings and art objects. In the Depression economic climate, few companies were ready to build new skyscrapers.[35] Even the Ruhlmann firm resorted to producing pieces of furniture in series, rather than individual hand-made items. The last buildings built in Paris in the new style were the Museum of Public Works by Auguste Perret (now the French Economic, Social and Environmental Council), the Palais de Chaillot by Louis-Hippolyte Boileau, Jacques Carlu and Léon Azéma, and the Palais de Tokyo of the 1937 Paris International Exposition; they looked out at the grandiose pavilion of Nazi Germany, designed by Albert Speer, which faced the equally grandiose socialist-realist pavilion of Stalin's Soviet Union.
After World War II, the dominant architectural style became the International Style pioneered by Le Corbusier, and Mies van der Rohe. A handful of Art Deco hotels were built in Miami Beach after World War II, but elsewhere the style largely vanished, except in industrial design, where it continued to be used in automobile styling and products such as jukeboxes. In the 1960s, it experienced a modest academic revival, thanks in part to the writings of architectural historians such as Bevis Hillier. In the 1970s efforts were made in the United States and Europe to preserve the best examples of Art Deco architecture, and many buildings were restored and repurposed. Postmodern architecture, which first appeared in the 1980s, like Art Deco, often includes purely decorative features.[35][57][77][78] Deco continues to inspire designers, and is often used in contemporary fashion, jewellery, and toiletries.[79]
There was no section set aside for painting at the 1925 Exposition. Art deco painting was by definition decorative, designed to decorate a room or work of architecture, so few painters worked exclusively in the style, but two painters are closely associated with Art Deco. Jean Dupas painted Art Deco murals for the Bordeaux Pavilion at the 1925 Decorative Arts Exposition in Paris, and also painted the picture over the fireplace in the Maison du Collectionneur exhibit at the 1925 Exposition, which featured furniture by Ruhlmann and other prominent Art Deco designers. His murals were also prominent in the décor of the French ocean liner SS Normandie. His work was purely decorative, designed as a background or accompaniment to other elements of the décor.[80]
The other painter closely associated with the style is Tamara de Lempicka. Born in Poland, she emigrated to Paris after the Russian Revolution. She studied under Maurice Denis and André Lhote, and borrowed many elements from their styles. She painted portraits in a realistic, dynamic and colourful Art Deco style.[81]
In the 1930s, a dramatic new form of Art Deco painting appeared in the United States. During the Great Depression, the Federal Art Project of the Works Progress Administration was created to give work to unemployed artists. Many were given the task of decorating government buildings, hospitals and schools. There was no specific art deco style used in the murals; artists engaged to paint murals in government buildings came from many different schools, from American regionalism to social realism; they included Reginald Marsh, Rockwell Kent and the Mexican painter Diego Rivera. The murals were Art Deco because they were all decorative and related to the activities in the building or city where they were painted: Reginald Marsh and Rockwell Kent both decorated U.S. postal buildings, and showed postal employees at work while Diego Rivera depicted automobile factory workers for the Detroit Institute of Arts. Diego Rivera's mural Man at the Crossroads (1933) for 30 Rockefeller Plaza featured an unauthorized portrait of Lenin.[82][83] When Rivera refused to remove Lenin, the painting was destroyed and a new mural was painted by the Spanish artist Josep Maria Sert.[84][85][86]
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Sculpture was a very common and integral feature of Art Deco architecture. In France, allegorical bas-reliefs representing dance and music by Antoine Bourdelle decorated the earliest Art Deco landmark in Paris, the Théâtre des Champs-Élysées, in 1912. The 1925 Exposition had major sculptural works placed around the site, pavilions were decorated with sculptural friezes, and several pavilions devoted to smaller studio sculpture. In the 1930s, a large group of prominent sculptors made works for the 1937 Exposition Internationale des Arts et Techniques dans la Vie Moderne at Chaillot. Alfred Janniot made the relief sculptures on the façade of the Palais de Tokyo. The Musée d'Art Moderne de la Ville de Paris, and the esplanade in front of the Palais de Chaillot, facing the Eiffel Tower, was crowded with new statuary by Charles Malfray, Henry Arnold, and many others.[87]
Public art deco sculpture was almost always representational, usually of heroic or allegorical figures related to the purpose of the building or room. The themes were usually selected by the patrons, not the artist. Abstract sculpture for decoration was extremely rare.[88][89]
In the United States, the most prominent Art Deco sculptor for public art was Paul Manship, who updated classical and mythological subjects and themes in an Art Deco style. His most famous work was the statue of Prometheus at Rockefeller Center in New York City, a 20th-century adaptation of a classical subject. Other important works for Rockefeller Center were made by Lee Lawrie, including the sculptural façade and the Atlas statue.
During the Great Depression in the United States, many sculptors were commissioned to make works for the decoration of federal government buildings, with funds provided by the WPA, or Works Progress Administration. They included sculptor Sidney Biehler Waugh, who created stylized and idealized images of workers and their tasks for federal government office buildings.[90] In San Francisco, Ralph Stackpole provided sculpture for the façade of the new San Francisco Stock Exchange building. In Washington D.C., Michael Lantz made works for the Federal Trade Commission building.
In Britain, Deco public statuary was made by Eric Gill for the BBC Broadcasting House, while Ronald Atkinson decorated the lobby of the former Daily Express Building in London (1932).
One of the best known and certainly the largest public Art Deco sculpture is the Christ the Redeemer by the French sculptor Paul Landowski, completed between 1922 and 1931, located on a mountain top overlooking Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.
Many early Art Deco sculptures were small, designed to decorate salons. One genre of this sculpture was called the Chryselephantine statuette, named for a style of ancient Greek temple statues made of gold and ivory. They were sometimes made of bronze, or sometimes with much more lavish materials, such as ivory, onyx, alabaster, and gold leaf.
One of the best-known Art Deco salon sculptors was the Romanian-born Demétre Chiparus, who produced colourful small sculptures of dancers. Other notable salon sculptors included Ferdinand Preiss, Josef Lorenzl, Alexander Kelety, Dorothea Charol and Gustav Schmidtcassel.[91] Another important American sculptor in the studio format was Harriet Whitney Frishmuth, who had studied with Auguste Rodin in Paris.
Pierre Le Paguays was a prominent Art Deco studio sculptor, whose work was shown at the 1925 Exposition. He worked with bronze, marble, ivory, onyx, gold, alabaster and other precious materials.[92]
François Pompon was a pioneer of modern stylised animalier sculpture. He was not fully recognised for his artistic accomplishments until the age of 67 at the Salon d'Automne of 1922 with the work Ours blanc, also known as The White Bear, now in the Musée d'Orsay in Paris.[93]
Parallel with these Art Deco sculptors, more avant-garde and abstract modernist sculptors were at work in Paris and New York City. The most prominent were Constantin Brâncuși, Joseph Csaky, Alexander Archipenko, Henri Laurens, Jacques Lipchitz, Gustave Miklos, Jean Lambert-Rucki, Jan et Joël Martel, Chana Orloff and Pablo Gargallo.[94]
The Art Deco style appeared early in the graphic arts, in the years just before World War I. It appeared in Paris in the posters and the costume designs of Léon Bakst for the Ballets Russes, and in the catalogues of the fashion designers Paul Poiret.[95] The illustrations of Georges Barbier, and Georges Lepape and the images in the fashion magazine La Gazette du bon ton perfectly captured the elegance and sensuality of the style. In the 1920s, the look changed; the fashions stressed were more casual, sportive and daring, with the woman models usually smoking cigarettes. American fashion magazines such as Vogue, Vanity Fair and Harper's Bazaar quickly picked up the new style and popularized it in the United States. It also influenced the work of American book illustrators such as Rockwell Kent. In Germany, the most famous poster artist of the period was Ludwig Hohlwein, who created colourful and dramatic posters for music festivals, beers, and, late in his career, for the Nazi Party.[96]
During the Art Nouveau period, posters usually advertised theatrical products or cabarets. In the 1920s, travel posters, made for steamship lines and airlines, became extremely popular. The style changed notably in the 1920s, to focus attention on the product being advertised. The images became simpler, precise, more linear, more dynamic, and were often placed against a single-color background. In France, popular Art Deco designers included Charles Loupot and Paul Colin, who became famous for his posters of American singer and dancer Josephine Baker. Jean Carlu designed posters for Charlie Chaplin movies, soaps, and theatres; in the late 1930s he emigrated to the United States, where, during the World War, he designed posters to encourage war production. The designer Charles Gesmar became famous making posters for the singer Mistinguett and for Air France. Among the best-known French Art Deco poster designers was Cassandre, who made the celebrated poster of the ocean liner SS Normandie in 1935.[96]
In the 1930s a new genre of posters appeared in the United States during the Great Depression. The Federal Art Project hired American artists to create posters to promote tourism and cultural events.
The architectural style of art deco made its debut in Paris in 1903–04, with the construction of two apartment buildings in Paris, one by Auguste Perret on rue Benjamin Franklin and the other on rue Trétaigne by Henri Sauvage. The two young architects used reinforced concrete for the first time in Paris residential buildings; the new buildings had clean lines, rectangular forms, and no decoration on the façades; they marked a clean break with the art nouveau style.[97] Between 1910 and 1913, Perret used his experience in concrete apartment buildings to construct the Théâtre des Champs-Élysées, 15 avenue Montaigne. Between 1925 and 1928 Sauvage constructed the new art deco façade of La Samaritaine department store in Paris.[98]
The Art Deco style was not limited to buildings on land; the ocean liner SS Normandie, whose first voyage was in 1935, featured Art Deco design, including a dining room whose ceiling and decoration were made of glass by Lalique.[99]
Art Deco architecture is sometimes classified into three types: Zigzag [Moderne] (aka Jazz Moderne[100]); Classic Moderne; and Streamline Moderne.[101]
Zigzag Moderne (aka Jazz Moderne) was the first style to arrive in the United States. "Zigzag" refers to the stepping of the outline of a skyscraper to exaggerate its height,[101][100] and was mainly used for large public and commercial buildings, in particular hotels, movie theaters, restaurants, skyscrapers, and department stores.[102]
Classic Moderne has a more graceful appearance, and there is less ornamentation. Classic Moderne is also sometimes referred to as PWA (Public Works Administration) Moderne or Depression Moderne, as it was undertaken by the PWA during the Great Depression.[102][100][101]
In the late 1930s, a new variety of Art Deco architecture became common; it was called Streamline Moderne or simply Streamline, or, in France, the Style Paquebot, or Ocean Liner style. Buildings in the style had rounded corners and long horizontal lines; they were built of reinforced concrete and were almost always white; and they sometimes had nautical features, such as railings and portholes that resembled those on a ship. The rounded corner was not entirely new; it had appeared in Berlin in 1923 in the Mossehaus by Erich Mendelsohn, and later in the Hoover Building, an industrial complex in the London suburb of Perivale. In the United States, it became most closely associated with transport; Streamline moderne was rare in office buildings but was often used for bus stations and airport terminals, such as the terminal at La Guardia airport in New York City that handled the first transatlantic flights, via the PanAm Clipper flying boats; and in roadside architecture, such as gas stations and diners. In the late 1930s a series of diners, modelled upon streamlined railroad cars, were produced and installed in towns in New England; at least two examples still remain and are now registered historic buildings.[103]
American skyscrapers marked the summit of the Art Deco style; they became the tallest and most recognizable modern buildings in the world. They were designed to show the prestige of their builders through their height, their shape, their color, and their dramatic illumination at night.[104] The American Radiator Building by Raymond Hood (1924) combined Gothic and Deco modern elements in the design of the building. Black brick on the frontage of the building (symbolizing coal) was selected to give an idea of solidity and to give the building a solid mass. Other parts of the façade were covered in gold bricks (symbolizing fire), and the entry was decorated with marble and black mirrors. Another early Art Deco skyscraper was Detroit's Guardian Building, which opened in 1929. Designed by modernist Wirt C. Rowland, the building was the first to employ stainless steel as a decorative element, and the extensive use of colored designs in place of traditional ornaments.
New York City's skyline was radically changed by the Chrysler Building in Manhattan (completed in 1930), designed by William Van Alen. It was a giant seventy-seven-floor tall advertisement for Chrysler automobiles. The top was crowned by a stainless steel spire, and was ornamented by deco "gargoyles" in the form of stainless steel radiator cap decorations. The base of the tower, thirty-three stories above the street, was decorated with colorful art deco friezes, and the lobby was decorated with art deco symbols and images expressing modernity.[105]
The Chrysler Building was soon surpassed in height by the Empire State Building by William F. Lamb (1931), in a slightly less lavish Deco style and the RCA Building (now 30 Rockefeller Plaza) by Raymond Hood (1933) which together completely changed New York City's skyline. The tops of the buildings were decorated with Art Deco crowns and spires covered with stainless steel, and, in the case of the Chrysler building, with Art Deco gargoyles modeled after radiator ornaments, while the entrances and lobbies were lavishly decorated with Art Deco sculpture, ceramics, and design. Similar buildings, though not quite as tall, soon appeared in Chicago and other large American cities. Rockefeller Center added a new design element: several tall buildings grouped around an open plaza, with a fountain in the middle.[106]
The grand showcases of American Art Deco interior design were the lobbies of government buildings, theaters, and particularly office buildings. Interiors were extremely colorful and dynamic, combining sculpture, murals, and ornate geometric design in marble, glass, ceramics and stainless steel. An early example was the Fisher Building in Detroit, by Joseph Nathaniel French; the lobby was highly decorated with sculpture and ceramics. The Guardian Building (originally the Union Trust Building) in Detroit, by Wirt Rowland (1929), decorated with red and black marble and brightly colored ceramics, highlighted by highly polished steel elevator doors and counters. The sculptural decoration installed in the walls illustrated the virtues of industry and saving; the building was immediately termed the "Cathedral of Commerce". The Medical and Dental Building called 450 Sutter Street in San Francisco by Timothy Pflueger was inspired by Mayan architecture, in a highly stylized form; it used pyramid shapes, and the interior walls were covered with highly stylized rows of hieroglyphs.[107]
In France, the best example of an Art Deco interior during this period was the Palais de la Porte Dorée (1931) by Albert Laprade, Léon Jaussely and Léon Bazin. The building (now the National Museum of Immigration, with an aquarium in the basement) was built for the Paris Colonial Exposition of 1931, to celebrate the people and products of French colonies. The exterior façade was entirely covered with sculpture, and the lobby created an Art Deco harmony with a wood parquet floor in a geometric pattern, a mural depicting the people of French colonies; and a harmonious composition of vertical doors and horizontal balconies.[107]
Many of the best surviving examples of Art Deco are cinemas built in the 1920s and 1930s. The Art Deco period coincided with the conversion of silent films to sound, and movie companies built large display destinations in major cities to capture the huge audience that came to see movies. Movie palaces in the 1920s often combined exotic themes with art deco style; Grauman's Egyptian Theatre in Hollywood (1922) was inspired by ancient Egyptian tombs and pyramids, while the Fox Theater in Bakersfield, California attached a tower in California Mission style to an Art Deco Hall. The largest of all is Radio City Music Hall in New York City, which opened in 1932. Originally designed as theatrical performance space, it quickly transformed into a cinema, which could seat 6,015 customers. The interior design by Donald Deskey used glass, aluminum, chrome, and leather to create a visual escape from reality. The Paramount Theatre in Oakland, California, by Timothy Pflueger, had a colorful ceramic façade, a lobby four stories high, and separate Art Deco smoking rooms for gentlemen and ladies. Similar grand palaces appeared in Europe. The Grand Rex in Paris (1932), with its imposing tower, was the largest cinema in Europe after the 6,000 seats of the Gaumont-Palace (1931–1973). The Gaumont State Cinema in London (1937) had a tower modelled on the Empire State building, covered with cream ceramic tiles and an interior in an Art Deco-Italian Renaissance style. The Paramount Theatre in Shanghai, China (1933) was originally built as a dance hall called The gate of 100 pleasures; it was converted to a cinema after the Communist Revolution in 1949, and now is a ballroom and disco. In the 1930s Italian architects built a small movie palace, the Cinema Impero, in Asmara in what is now Eritrea. Today, many of the movie theatres have been subdivided into multiplexes, but others have been restored and are used as cultural centres in their communities.[108]
![The octagon-shaped medallion – Sign of the La Samaritaine department store in Paris, by Henri Sauvage (1928)[114]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Paris_La_Samaritaine_374.JPG/1280px-Paris_La_Samaritaine_374.JPG)
Decoration in the Art Deco period went through several distinct phases. Between 1910 and 1920, as Art Nouveau was exhausted, design styles saw a return to tradition, particularly in the work of Paul Iribe. In 1912 André Vera published an essay in the magazine L'Art Décoratif calling for a return to the craftsmanship and materials of earlier centuries and using a new repertoire of forms taken from nature, particularly baskets and garlands of fruit and flowers. A second tendency of Art Deco, also from 1910 to 1920, was inspired by the bright colours of the artistic movement known as the Fauves and by the colourful costumes and sets of the Ballets Russes. This style was often expressed with exotic materials such as sharkskin, mother of pearl, ivory, tinted leather, lacquered and painted wood, and decorative inlays on furniture that emphasized its geometry. This period of the style reached its high point in the 1925 Paris Exposition of Decorative Arts. In the late 1920s and the 1930s, the decorative style changed, inspired by new materials and technologies. It became sleeker and less ornamental. Furniture, like architecture, began to have rounded edges and to take on a polished, streamlined look, taken from the streamline modern style. New materials, such as nickel or chrome-plated steel, aluminium and bakelite, an early form of plastic, began to appear in furniture and decoration.[119]
Throughout the Art Deco period, and particularly in the 1930s, the motifs of the décor expressed the function of the building. Theatres were decorated with sculpture which illustrated music, dance, and excitement; power companies showed sunrises, the Chrysler building showed stylized hood ornaments; The friezes of Palais de la Porte Dorée at the 1931 Paris Colonial Exposition showed the faces of the different nationalities of French colonies. The Streamline style made it appear that the building itself was in motion. The WPA murals of the 1930s featured ordinary people; factory workers, postal workers, families and farmers, in place of classical heroes.[120]
Art Deco, like the complex times that engendered it, can best be characterized by a series of contradictions: minimalist vs maximalist, angular vs fluid, ziggurat vs streamline, symmetrical vs irregular, to name a few. The iconography chosen by Art Deco artists to express the period is also laden with contradictions. Fair maidens in 18th-century dress seem to coexist with chic sophisticated ladies and recumbent nudes, and flashes of lightning illuminate stylized rosebuds.[121]
French furniture from 1910 until the early 1920s was largely an updating of French traditional furniture styles, and the art nouveau designs of Louis Majorelle, Charles Plumet and other manufacturers. French furniture manufacturers felt threatened by the growing popularity of German manufacturers and styles, particularly the Biedermeier style, which was simple and clean-lined. The French designer Frantz Jourdain, the President of the Paris Salon d'Automne, invited designers from Munich to participate in the 1910 Salon. French designers saw the new German style and decided to meet the German challenge. The French designers decided to present new French styles in the Salon of 1912. The rules of the Salon indicated that only modern styles would be permitted. All of the major French furniture designers took part in Salon: Paul Follot, Paul Iribe, Maurice Dufrêne, André Groult, André Mare and Louis Suë took part, presenting new works that updated the traditional French styles of Louis XVI and Louis Philippe with more angular corners inspired by Cubism and brighter colours inspired by Fauvism and the Nabis.[122]
The painter André Mare and furniture designer Louis Süe both participated the 1912 Salon. After the war the two men joined to form their own company, formally called the Compagnie des Arts Française, but usually known simply as Suë and Mare. Unlike the prominent art nouveau designers like Louis Majorelle, who personally designed every piece, they assembled a team of skilled craftsmen and produced complete interior designs, including furniture, glassware, carpets, ceramics, wallpaper and lighting. Their work featured bright colors and furniture and fine woods, such as ebony encrusted with mother of pearl, abalone and silvered metal to create bouquets of flowers. They designed everything from the interiors of ocean liners to perfume bottles for the label of Jean Patou.The firm prospered in the early 1920s, but the two men were better craftsmen than businessmen. The firm was sold in 1928, and both men left.[123]
The most prominent furniture designer at the 1925 Decorative Arts Exposition was Émile-Jacques Ruhlmann, from Alsace. He first exhibited his works at the 1913 Autumn Salon, then had his own pavilion, the "House of the Rich Collector", at the 1925 Exposition. He used only most rare and expensive materials, including ebony, mahogany, rosewood, ambon and other exotic woods, decorated with inlays of ivory, tortoise shell, mother of pearl, Little pompoms of silk decorated the handles of drawers of the cabinets.[124] His furniture was based upon 18th-century models, but simplified and reshaped. In all of his work, the interior structure of the furniture was completely concealed. The framework usually of oak, was completely covered with an overlay of thin strips of wood, then covered by a second layer of strips of rare and expensive woods. This was then covered with a veneer and polished, so that the piece looked as if it had been cut out of a single block of wood. Contrast to the dark wood was provided by inlays of ivory, and ivory key plates and handles. According to Ruhlmann, armchairs had to be designed differently according to the functions of the rooms where they appeared; living room armchairs were designed to be welcoming, office chairs comfortable, and salon chairs voluptuous. Only a small number of pieces of each design of furniture was made, and the average price of one of his beds or cabinets was greater than the price of an average house.[125]
Jules Leleu was a traditional furniture designer who moved smoothly into Art Deco in the 1920s; he designed the furniture for the dining room of the Élysée Palace, and for the first-class cabins of the steamship Normandie. his style was characterized by the use of ebony, Macassar wood, walnut, with decoration of plaques of ivory and mother of pearl. He introduced the style of lacquered art deco furniture in the late 1920s, and in the late 1930s introduced furniture made of metal with panels of smoked glass.[126] In Italy, the designer Gio Ponti was famous for his streamlined designs.
The costly and exotic furniture of Ruhlmann and other traditionalists infuriated modernists, including the architect Le Corbusier, causing him to write a famous series of articles denouncing the arts décoratif style. He attacked furniture made only for the rich and called upon designers to create furniture made with inexpensive materials and modern style, which ordinary people could afford. He designed his own chairs, created to be inexpensive and mass-produced.[127]
In the 1930s, furniture designs adapted to the form, with smoother surfaces and curved forms. The masters of the late style included Donald Deskey, who was one of the most influential designers; he created the interior of the Radio City Music Hall. He used a mixture of traditional and very modern materials, including aluminium, chrome, and bakelite, an early form of plastic.[128] Other top designers of Art Deco furniture of the 1930s in the United States included Gilbert Rohde, Warren McArthur, and Kem Weber.
The Waterfall style was popular in the 1930s and 1940s, the most prevalent Art Deco form of furniture at the time. Pieces were typically of plywood finished with blond veneer and with rounded edges, resembling a waterfall.[129]
Streamline was a variety of Art Deco which emerged during the mid-1930s. It was influenced by modern aerodynamic principles developed for aviation and ballistics to reduce aerodynamic drag at high velocities. The bullet shapes were applied by designers to cars, trains, ships, and even objects not intended to move, such as refrigerators, gas pumps, and buildings.[59] One of the first production vehicles in this style was the Chrysler Airflow of 1933. It was unsuccessful commercially, but the beauty and functionality of its design set a precedent; meant modernity. It continued to be used in car design well after World War II.[130][131][132][133]
New industrial materials began to influence the design of cars and household objects. These included aluminium, chrome, and bakelite, an early form of plastic. Bakelite could be easily moulded into different forms, and soon was used in telephones, radios and other appliances.
_interior.jpg/1280px-SS_Normandie_(ship,_1935)_interior.jpg)
Ocean liners also adopted a style of Art Deco, known in French as the Style Paquebot, or "Ocean Liner Style". The most famous example was the SS Normandie, which made its first transatlantic trip in 1935. It was designed particularly to bring wealthy Americans to Paris to shop. The cabins and salons featured the latest Art Deco furnishings and decoration. The Grand Salon of the ship, which was the restaurant for first-class passengers, was bigger than the Hall of Mirrors of the Palace of Versailles. It was illuminated by electric lights within twelve pillars of Lalique crystal; thirty-six matching pillars lined the walls. This was one of the earliest examples of illumination being directly integrated into architecture. The style of ships was soon adapted to buildings. A notable example is found on the San Francisco waterfront, where the Maritime Museum building, built as a public bath in 1937, resembles a ferryboat, with ship railings and rounded corners. The Star Ferry Terminal in Hong Kong also used a variation of the style.[35]
Textiles were an important part of the Art Deco style, in the form of colourful wallpaper, upholstery and carpets, In the 1920s, designers were inspired by the stage sets of the Ballets Russes, fabric designs and costumes from Léon Bakst and creations by the Wiener Werkstätte. The early interior designs of André Mare featured brightly coloured and highly stylized garlands of roses and flowers, which decorated the walls, floors, and furniture. Stylized Floral motifs also dominated the work of Raoul Dufy and Paul Poiret, and in the furniture designs of J.E. Ruhlmann. The floral carpet was reinvented in Deco style by Paul Poiret.[134]
The use of the style was greatly enhanced by the introduction of the pochoir stencil-based printing system, which allowed designers to achieve crispness of lines and very vivid colours. Art Deco forms appeared in the clothing of Paul Poiret, Charles Worth and Jean Patou. After World War I, exports of clothing and fabrics became one of the most important currency earners of France.[135]
Late Art Deco wallpaper and textiles sometimes featured stylized industrial scenes, cityscapes, locomotives and other modern themes, as well as stylized female figures, metallic finishes and geometric designs.[135]
The new woman of pre-WW1 days became the Amazon of the Art Deco era. Fashion changed dramatically during this period, thanks in particular to designers Paul Poiret and later Coco Chanel. Poiret introduced an important innovation to fashion design, the concept of draping, a departure from the tailoring and patternmaking of the past.[136] He designed clothing cut along straight lines and constructed of rectangular motifs.[136] His styles offered structural simplicity[136] The corseted look and formal styles of the previous period were abandoned, and fashion became more practical, and streamlined. With the use of new materials, brighter colours and printed designs.[136] The designer Coco Chanel continued the transition, popularising the style of sporty, casual chic.[137]
A particular typology of the era was the Flapper, a woman who cut her hair into a short bob, drank cocktails, smoked in public, and danced late into the night at fashionable clubs, cabarets or bohemian dives. Of course, most women didn't live like this, the Flapper being more a character present in popular imagination than a reality. Another female Art Deco style was the androgynous garçonne of the 1920s, with flattened bosom, dispelled waist and revealed legs, reducing the silhouette to a short tube, topped with a head-hugging cloche hat.[138]
In the 1920s and 1930s, designers including René Lalique and Cartier tried to reduce the traditional dominance of diamonds by introducing more colourful gemstones, such as small emeralds, rubies and sapphires. They also placed greater emphasis on very elaborate and elegant settings, featuring less-expensive materials such as enamel, glass, horn and ivory. Diamonds themselves were cut in less traditional forms; the 1925 Exposition saw many diamonds cut in the form of tiny rods or matchsticks. Other popular Art Deco cuts include:
The settings for diamonds also changed; More and more often jewellers used platinum instead of gold, since it was strong and flexible, and could set clusters of stones. Jewellers also began to use more dark materials, such as enamels and black onyx, which provided a higher contrast with diamonds.[141]
Jewellery became much more colourful and varied in style. Cartier and the firm of Boucheron combined diamonds with colourful other gemstones cut into the form of leaves, fruit or flowers, to make brooches, rings, earrings, clips and pendants. Far Eastern themes also became popular; plaques of jade and coral were combined with platinum and diamonds, and vanity cases, cigarette cases and powder boxes were decorated with Japanese and Chinese landscapes made with mother of pearl, enamel and lacquer.[141]
Rapidly changing fashions in clothing brought new styles of jewellery. Sleeveless dresses of the 1920s meant that arms needed decoration, and designers quickly created bracelets of gold, silver and platinum encrusted with lapis-lazuli, onyx, coral, and other colourful stones; Other bracelets were intended for the upper arms, and several bracelets were often worn at the same time. The short haircuts of women in the twenties called for elaborate deco earring designs. As women began to smoke in public, designers created very ornate cigarette cases and ivory cigarette holders. The invention of the wristwatch before World War I inspired jewelers to create extraordinary, decorated watches, encrusted with diamonds and plated with enamel, gold and silver. Pendant watches, hanging from a ribbon, also became fashionable.[142]
The established jewellery houses of Paris in the period, Cartier, Chaumet, Georges Fouquet, Mauboussin, and Van Cleef & Arpels all created jewellery and objects in the new fashion. The firm of Chaumet made highly geometric cigarette boxes, cigarette lighters, pillboxes and notebooks, made of hard stones decorated with jade, lapis lazuli, diamonds and sapphires. They were joined by many young new designers, each with his own idea of deco. Raymond Templier designed pieces with highly intricate geometric patterns, including silver earrings that looked like skyscrapers. Gerard Sandoz was only 18 when he started to design jewelry in 1921; he designed many celebrated pieces based on the smooth and polished look of modern machinery. The glass designer René Lalique also entered the field, creating pendants of fruit, flowers, frogs, fairies or mermaids made of sculpted glass in bright colors, hanging on cords of silk with tassels.[142] The jeweller Paul Brandt contrasted rectangular and triangular patterns, and embedded pearls in lines on onyx plaques. Jean Despres made necklaces of contrasting colours by bringing together silver and black lacquer, or gold with lapis lazuli. Many of his designs looked like highly polished pieces of machines. Jean Dunand was also inspired by modern machinery, combined with bright reds and blacks contrasting with polished metal.[142]
_by_Ren%C3%A9_Jules_Lalique,_1922,_blown_four_mold_glass_-_Cincinnati_Art_Museum_-_DSC04355.JPG/1280px-Vase_(Perruches)_by_Ren%C3%A9_Jules_Lalique,_1922,_blown_four_mold_glass_-_Cincinnati_Art_Museum_-_DSC04355.JPG)
Like the Art Nouveau period before it, Art Deco was an exceptional period for fine glass and other decorative objects, designed to fit their architectural surroundings. The most famous producer of glass objects was René Lalique, whose works, from vases to hood ornaments for automobiles, became symbols of the period. He had made ventures into glass before World War I, designing bottles for the perfumes of François Coty, but he did not begin serious production of art glass until after World War I. In 1918, at the age of 58, he bought a large glass works in Combs-la-Ville and began to manufacture both artistic and practical glass objects. He treated glass as a form of sculpture, and created statuettes, vases, bowls, lamps and ornaments. He used demi-crystal rather than lead crystal, which was softer and easier to form, though not as lustrous. He sometimes used coloured glass, but more often used opalescent glass, where part or the whole of the outer surface was stained with a wash. Lalique provided the decorative glass panels, lights and illuminated glass ceilings for the ocean liners SS Île de France in 1927 and the SS Normandie in 1935, and for some of the first-class sleeping cars of the French railroads. At the 1925 Exposition of Decorative Arts, he had his own pavilion, designed a dining room with a table setting and matching glass ceiling for the Sèvres Pavilion, and designed a glass fountain for the courtyard of the Cours des Métiers, a slender glass column which spouted water from the sides and was illuminated at night.[144]
Other notable Art Deco glass manufacturers included Marius-Ernest Sabino, who specialized in figurines, vases, bowls, and glass sculptures of fish, nudes, and animals. For these he often used an opalescent glass which could change from white to blue to amber, depending upon the light. His vases and bowls featured molded friezes of animals, nudes or busts of women with fruit or flowers. His work was less subtle but more colourful than that of Lalique.[144]
Other notable Deco glass designers included Edmond Etling, who also used bright opalescent colours, often with geometric patterns and sculpted nudes; Albert Simonet, and Aristide Colotte and Maurice Marinot, who was known for his deeply etched sculptural bottles and vases. The firm of Daum from the city of Nancy, which had been famous for its Art Nouveau glass, produced a line of Deco vases and glass sculpture, solid, geometric and chunky in form. More delicate multi-coloured works were made by Gabriel Argy-Rousseau, who produced delicately shaded vases with sculpted butterflies and nymphs, and Francois Decorchemont, whose vases were streaked and marbled.[144]
The Great Depression ruined a large part of the decorative glass industry, which depended upon wealthy clients. Some artists turned to designing stained glass windows for churches. In 1937, the Steuben glass company began the practice of commissioning famous artists to produce glassware.[144] Louis Majorelle, famous for his Art Nouveau furniture, designed a remarkable Art Deco stained glass window portraying steel workers for the offices of the Aciéries de Longwy, a steel mill in Longwy, France.
Amiens Cathedral has a rare example of Art Deco stained glass windows in the Chapel of the Sacred Heart, made in 1932–34 by the Paris glass artist Jean Gaudin based on drawings by Jacques Le Breton.[145]
Art Deco artists produced a wide variety of practical objects in the Art Deco style, made of industrial materials from traditional wrought iron to chrome-plated steel. The American artist Norman Bel Geddes designed a cocktail set resembling a skyscraper made of chrome-plated steel. Raymond Subes designed an elegant metal grille for the entrance of the Palais de la Porte Dorée, the centre-piece of the 1931 Paris Colonial Exposition. The French sculptor Jean Dunand produced magnificent doors on the theme "The Hunt", covered with gold leaf and paint on plaster (1935).[146]
Art Deco visuals and imagery was used in multiple animated films including Batman, Night Hood, All's Fair at the Fair, Merry Mannequins, Page Miss Glory, Fantasia and Sleeping Beauty.[147] The architecture is featured in the fictitious underwater city of Rapture in the BioShock video game series.
Art Deco architecture began in Europe, but by 1939 there were examples in large cities on every continent and in almost every country. This is a selection of prominent buildings on each continent.
For a comprehensive list of existing buildings by country, see: List of Art Deco architecture.
![Fiat Tagliero Building in Asmara, Eritrea, by Giuseppe Pettazzi (1938)[148]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Fiat_tagliero,_08.JPG/1280px-Fiat_tagliero,_08.JPG)
Most Art Deco buildings in Africa were built during European colonial rule, and often designed by Italian, French and Portuguese architects.
Many Art Deco buildings in Asia were designed by European architects. But in the Philippines, local architects such as Juan Nakpil, Juan Arellano, Pablo Antonio and others were preeminent. Many Art Deco landmarks in Asia were demolished during the great economic expansion of Asia the late 20th century, but some notable enclaves of the architecture still remain, particularly in Shanghai and Mumbai.
The Indian Institute of Architects, founded in Mumbai in 1929, played a prominent role in propagating the Art Deco movement. In November 1937, this institute organised the 'Ideal Home Exhibition' held in the Town Hall in Mumbai which spanned over 12 days and attracted about one hundred thousand visitors. As a result, it was declared a success by the 'Journal of the Indian Institute of Architects'. The exhibits displayed the 'ideal', or better described as the most 'modern' arrangements for various parts of the house, paying close detail to avoid architectural blunders and present the most efficient and well-thought-out models. The exhibition focused on various elements of a home ranging from furniture, elements of interior decoration as well as radios and refrigerators using new and scientifically relevant materials and methods.[149]Guided by their desire to emulate the west, the Indian architects were fascinated by the industrial modernity that Art Deco offered.[149] The western elites were the first to experiment with the technologically advanced facets of Art Deco, and architects began the process of transformation by the early 1930s.[149]
Mumbai's expanding port commerce in the 1930s resulted in the growth of educated middle class population. It also saw an increase of people migrating to Mumbai in search of job opportunities. This led to the pressing need for new developments through Land Reclamation Schemes and construction of new public and residential buildings.[150] Parallelly, the changing political climate in the country and the aspirational quality of the Art Deco aesthetics led to a whole-hearted acceptance of the building style in the city's development. Most of the buildings from this period can be seen spread throughout the city neighbourhoods in areas such as Churchgate, Colaba, Fort, Mohammed Ali Road, Cumbala Hill, Dadar, Matunga, Bandra and Chembur.[151][152]
Melbourne and Sydney, Australia, have several notable Art Deco buildings, including the Manchester Unity Building and the former Russell Street Police Headquarters in Melbourne, the Castlemaine Art Museum in Castlemaine, central Victoria and the Grace Building, AWA Tower and Anzac Memorial in Sydney.
Several towns in New Zealand, including Napier and Hastings were rebuilt in Art Deco style after the 1931 Hawke's Bay earthquake, and many of the buildings have been protected and restored. Napier has been nominated for UNESCO World Heritage Site status, the first cultural site in New Zealand to be nominated.[153][154] Wellington has retained a sizeable number of Art Deco buildings.[155]
In Canada, surviving Art Deco structures are mainly in the major cities; Montreal, Toronto, Hamilton, Ontario, and Vancouver. They range from public buildings like Vancouver City Hall to commercial buildings (College Park) to public works (R. C. Harris Water Treatment Plant).
In Mexico, the most imposing Art Deco example is interior of the Palacio de Bellas Artes (Palace of Fine Arts), finished in 1934 with its elaborate décor and murals. Examples of Art Deco residential architecture can be found in the Condesa district, many designed by Francisco J. Serrano.
In the United States, Art Deco buildings are found from coast to coast, in all the major cities. It was most widely used for office buildings, train stations, airport terminals, and cinemas; residential buildings are rare. During the 1920s and 1930s architects in the Southwestern United States, particularly in the US state of New Mexico, combined Pueblo Revival with Territorial Style and Art Deco to create Pueblo Deco, as seen in the KiMo Theater in Albuquerque. In the 1930s, the more austere streamline style became popular. Many buildings were demolished between 1945 and the late 1960s, but then efforts began to protect the best examples. The City of Miami Beach established the Miami Beach Architectural District to preserve the fine collection of Art Deco buildings found there.
Art Deco buildings can be found throughout Central America, including in Cuba.
The architectural style first appeared in Paris with the Théâtre des Champs-Élysées (1910–13) by Auguste Perret but then spread rapidly around Europe, until examples could be found in nearly every large city, from London to Moscow. In Germany two variations of Art Deco flourished in the 1920s and 30s: The Neue Sachlichkeit style and Expressionist architecture. Notable examples include Erich Mendelsohn's Mossehaus and Schaubühne in Berlin, Fritz Höger's Chilehaus in Hamburg and his Kirche am Hohenzollernplatz in Berlin, the Anzeiger Tower in Hanover and the Borsig Tower in Berlin.[157]
One of the largest Art Deco buildings in Western Europe is the National Basilica of the Sacred Heart in Koekelberg, Brussels. In 1925, architect Albert van Huffel won the Grand Prize for Architecture with his scale model of the basilica at the Exposition Internationale des Arts Décoratifs et Industriels Modernes in Paris.[158]
Spain and Portugal have some striking examples of Art Deco buildings, particularly movie theaters. Examples in Portugal are the Capitólio Theater (1931) and the Éden Cine-Theatre (1937) in Lisbon, the Rivoli Theater (1937) and the Coliseu (1941) in Porto and the Rosa Damasceno Theater (1937) in Santarém. An example in Spain is the Cine Rialto in Valencia (1939).
During the 1930s, Art Deco had a noticeable effect on house design in the United Kingdom,[57] as well as the design of various public buildings.[77] Straight, white-rendered house frontages rising to flat roofs, sharply geometric door surrounds and tall windows, as well as convex-curved metal corner windows, were all characteristic of that period.[78][159][160]
The London Underground is famous for many examples of Art Deco architecture,[161] and there are a number of buildings in the style situated along the Golden Mile in Brentford. Also in West London is the Hoover Building, which was originally built for The Hoover Company and was converted into a superstore in the early 1990s.
Bucharest, once known as the "Little Paris" of the 19th century, engaged in a new design after World War I, redirected its inspiration towards New York City. The 1930s brought a new fashion which echoed in the cinema, theatre, dancing styles, art and architecture. Bucharest during the 1930s was marked by more and more art deco architecture from the bigger boulevards like Bulevardul Magheru to the private houses and smaller districts. The Telephone Palace, an early landmark of modern Bucharest, was the first skyscraper of the city. It was the tallest building between 1933 and the 1950s, with a height of 52.5 metres (172 ft). The architects were Louis Weeks and Edmond van Saanen Algi and engineer Walter Troy. The art deco monuments are a crucial part of the character of Bucharest since they describe and mark an important period from its history, the interbellic life (World War I–World War II). Most of the buildings from those years are prone to catastrophe, as Bucharest is located in an earthquake zone.[162]
Art Deco in South America is especially present in countries that received a great wave of immigration in the first half of the 20th century, with notable works in their richest cities, like São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro in Brazil and Buenos Aires in Argentina. The Kavanagh Building in Buenos Aires (1934), by Sánchez, Lagos and de la Torre, was the tallest reinforced-concrete structure when it was completed and is a notable example of late Art Deco style.
In many cities, efforts have been made to protect the remaining Art Deco buildings. In many U.S. cities, historic art deco cinemas have been preserved and turned into cultural centres. Even more modest art deco buildings have been preserved as part of America's architectural heritage; an art deco café and gas station along Route 66 in Shamrock, Texas is an historic monument. The Miami Beach Architectural District protects several hundred old buildings, and requires that new buildings comply with the style. In Havana, Cuba, many Art Deco buildings have badly deteriorated. Efforts are underway to bring the buildings back to their original appearance.
In the 21st century, modern variants of Art Deco, called Neo Art Deco (or neo-Art Deco), have appeared in some American cities, inspired by the classic Art Deco buildings of the 1920s and 1930s.[165] Examples include the NBC Tower in Chicago, inspired by 30 Rockefeller Plaza in New York City; and Smith Center for the Performing Arts in Las Vegas, Nevada, which includes art deco features from Hoover Dam, 80 km (50 miles) away.[165][166][167][168]
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![Influencias del Art Nouveau – Curvas sinuosas en la fachada de la Avenida Montaigne nº 26, París, de Louis Duhayon y Marcel Julien (1937)[51]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Avenue_Montaigne_(47128639262).jpg/1280px-Avenue_Montaigne_(47128639262).jpg)
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![Arte mesopotámico – Zigurat de Ur en Tell el-Muqayyar, provincia de Dhi Qar, Irak, arquitecto desconocido (siglo XXI a.C.)[55]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Ancient_ziggurat_at_Ali_Air_Base_Iraq_2005.jpg/1280px-Ancient_ziggurat_at_Ali_Air_Base_Iraq_2005.jpg)
![Arte precolombino (en este caso maya): Dintel 24 de Yaxchilán (702 d. C.), piedra caliza, Museo Británico, Londres[56]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Yaxchilan_Lintel_24.jpg/1280px-Yaxchilan_Lintel_24.jpg)
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![De Stijl – Casa Rietveld Schröder en Utrecht, Países Bajos, por Gerrit Rietveld (1924)[63]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Casa_Rietveld_Schr%C3%B6der_02.jpg/1280px-Casa_Rietveld_Schr%C3%B6der_02.jpg)
![Influencias de De Stijl – Pavillon du Tourisme, de Robert Mallet-Stevens, Exposición Internacional de Artes Decorativas e Industriales Modernas, París (1925)[64]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Pavillon_du_tourisme_de_Robert_Mallet-Stevens_(UAM,_Centre_Pompidou,_Paris)_(43200558625).jpg/1280px-Pavillon_du_tourisme_de_Robert_Mallet-Stevens_(UAM,_Centre_Pompidou,_Paris)_(43200558625).jpg)
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![Influencias constructivistas – Reloj, decorado con formas geométricas planas, de Jean Goulden (1928), bronce plateado con esmalte, Colección Stephen E. Kelly[65]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Clock_-_Jean_Goulden_(38866282265).jpg/1280px-Clock_-_Jean_Goulden_(38866282265).jpg)
![Influencias del teatro y el cine expresionistas: Interior del Teatro Apollo Victoria de Londres, por Ernest Wamsley Lewis (1928-1930)[66]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Stitched_Panorama_of_the_Apollo_theatre_near_Victoria,_London_167_(5058015607).jpg/1280px-Stitched_Panorama_of_the_Apollo_theatre_near_Victoria,_London_167_(5058015607).jpg)
![Futurismo – Casa con escalera y ascensores desde los cuatro niveles de la calle, parte de La Città Nuova, de Antonio Sant'Elia (1914), tinta y lápiz sobre papel, Musei Civici, Como, Italia[67]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Casa_a_gradinata_con_ascensori_dai_quattro_piani_stradali_1914-_Sant'Elia.jpg/1280px-Casa_a_gradinata_con_ascensori_dai_quattro_piani_stradali_1914-_Sant'Elia.jpg)
![Influencias futuristas – Calle de Laos nº 25 en París, de Charles Thomas (1930)[67]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/25_Rue_du_Laos_Pary%C5%BC,_%C3%8Ele-de-France_(50594191012).jpg/1280px-25_Rue_du_Laos_Pary%C5%BC,_%C3%8Ele-de-France_(50594191012).jpg)
![Arquitectura expresionista: edificio de la imprenta y editorial Rudolf Mosse en Berlín, obra de Erich Mendelsohn (1921-1923)[68]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Berlin,_Mitte,_Schuetzenstrasse,_Mosse-Zentrum_05.jpg/1280px-Berlin,_Mitte,_Schuetzenstrasse,_Mosse-Zentrum_05.jpg)
![Influencias de la arquitectura expresionista: grandes almacenes Aux Trois-Quartiers en París, de Louis Faure-Dujarric (1932)[68]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Aux_Trois-Quartiers,_Paris,_with_it's_original_facade.jpg/1280px-Aux_Trois-Quartiers,_Paris,_with_it's_original_facade.jpg)
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._Corner_Cabinet,_ca._1923..jpg/1280px-Emile-Jacques_Ruhlmann_(French,_1879-1933)._Corner_Cabinet,_ca._1923..jpg)
![The flower basket – Balconies and pediment of Avenue Montaigne no. 41 in Paris, unknown architect or sculptor (1924)[109]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/41_Avenue_Montaigne,_75008_Paris,_France_27_December_2016.jpg/1280px-41_Avenue_Montaigne,_75008_Paris,_France_27_December_2016.jpg)
![Repeating patterns – Decorative ironwork of the Madison Belmont Building (Madison Avenue no. 181–183) in New York City, by Ferrobrandt (1925)[110]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Grille_of_the_Cheney_Silk_Company_Building,_New_York_City,_1925,_designed_by_the_French_metalworking_company_Ferrobrandt.jpg/1280px-Grille_of_the_Cheney_Silk_Company_Building,_New_York_City,_1925,_designed_by_the_French_metalworking_company_Ferrobrandt.jpg)
![The papyrus flower – Porte d'honneur, at the International Exhibition of Modern Decorative and Industrial Arts in Paris, by Edgar Brandt (1925)[111]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Porte_d'honneur,_by_Edgar_Brandt,_1925,_at_the_International_Exhibition_of_Modern_Decorative_and_Industrial_Arts.jpg/1280px-Porte_d'honneur,_by_Edgar_Brandt,_1925,_at_the_International_Exhibition_of_Modern_Decorative_and_Industrial_Arts.jpg)
![The foliage scroll – Elevator doors, by Brandt (1926), wrought iron, glass, patinated and gilded bronze, Calouste Gulbenkian Museum, Lisbon[112]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Edgar_brandt,_porte_da_ascensore_in_ferro,_vetro_e_bronzo,_francia_1926_02.jpg/1280px-Edgar_brandt,_porte_da_ascensore_in_ferro,_vetro_e_bronzo,_francia_1926_02.jpg)
![Decoration not just through ornaments, but also through combinations of volumes - Withuis (Avenue Charles Woeste no. 183) in Brussels, Belgium, by Joseph Diongre (1927)[113]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Belgique_-_Bruxelles_-_Withuis_-_01.jpg/1280px-Belgique_-_Bruxelles_-_Withuis_-_01.jpg)
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![Vertical mouldings – Greybrook House (Brook Street no. 28) in London, by Sir John Burnet & Partners (1928–29)[115]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/28_Brook_Street,_Mayfair,_January_2022_01.jpg/1280px-28_Brook_Street,_Mayfair,_January_2022_01.jpg)
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![An aesthetic of artificial lighting – Maison de France (now showroom for Louis Vuitton), Avenue des Champs-Élysées no. 101 in Paris, by Louis-Hippolyte Boileau and Charles-Henri Besnard (1931)[116]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Louis_Vuitton_Maison_Champs_%C3%89lys%C3%A9es_(49570496372).jpg/1280px-Louis_Vuitton_Maison_Champs_%C3%89lys%C3%A9es_(49570496372).jpg)
![Ziggurat – Union Hotel (Strada Ion Câmpineanu no. 11) in Bucharest, by Arghir Culina (1931)[116]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Bucharest_-_Strada_Ion_C%C3%A2mpineanu_11_(cropped_top).jpg/1280px-Bucharest_-_Strada_Ion_C%C3%A2mpineanu_11_(cropped_top).jpg)
![Vertical and horizontal luminous surfaces – Entrance hall of the Villa Cavrois in Croix, France, by Rob Mallet-Stevens (1932)[117]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Villa_Cavrois_le_vestibule_(cropped).jpg/1280px-Villa_Cavrois_le_vestibule_(cropped).jpg)
![The undulating line – Relief on the Grave of the Străjescu Family in Bellu Cemetery, Bucharest, by George Cristinel (1934)[118]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Grave_of_the_colonel_Paul_Str%C4%83jescu_Family_in_the_Bellu_Cemetery_in_Bucharest,_Romania_(08).jpg/1280px-Grave_of_the_colonel_Paul_Str%C4%83jescu_Family_in_the_Bellu_Cemetery_in_Bucharest,_Romania_(08).jpg)
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![Angular chandeliers by Lanchester & Lodge (c. 1929–1936), Brotherton Library, University of Leeds, West Yorkshire, UK[143]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/A_light_fixture_in_the_Leeds_Uni._library_(353154643).jpg/1280px-A_light_fixture_in_the_Leeds_Uni._library_(353154643).jpg)
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![Ventilation tower of the Maastunnel in Rotterdam, Netherlands (1937)[156]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/1604_Maastunnel_-_entrance_building_of_pedestrian_and_cyclists'_tunnel_at_Parkkade,_Rotterdam_114.jpg/1280px-1604_Maastunnel_-_entrance_building_of_pedestrian_and_cyclists'_tunnel_at_Parkkade,_Rotterdam_114.jpg)
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.jpg/1280px-75_Strada_Romulus,_Bucharest_(01).jpg)
![Messeturm in Frankfurt, Germany, by Helmut Jahn (1990), a Postmodern building that is reminiscent of Art Deco architecture[163]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Messeturm,_Frankfurt,_Southwest_detail_view_20170325_1.jpg/1280px-Messeturm,_Frankfurt,_Southwest_detail_view_20170325_1.jpg)
![Rue Henri Heine no. 3–5 in Paris by J.J. Ory (2001), a neo-Art Deco building[164]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Rue_Henri_Heine_3.jpg/1280px-Rue_Henri_Heine_3.jpg)
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