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Relación especial

La primera ministra británica Margaret Thatcher y el presidente estadounidense Ronald Reagan . Su fuerte vínculo fue un claro ejemplo de las relaciones entre el Reino Unido y los Estados Unidos a finales del siglo XX.

La relación especial es un término que se utiliza a menudo para describir las relaciones políticas , sociales , diplomáticas , culturales , económicas , jurídicas , medioambientales , religiosas , militares e históricas entre el Reino Unido y los Estados Unidos o sus dirigentes políticos. El término empezó a utilizarse popularmente tras ser utilizado en un discurso pronunciado en 1946 por el ex primer ministro británico Winston Churchill . Ambas naciones han sido aliados cercanos durante muchos conflictos de los siglos XX y XXI, entre ellos la Primera Guerra Mundial , la Segunda Guerra Mundial , la Guerra de Corea , la Guerra Fría , la Guerra del Golfo y la guerra contra el terrorismo .

Aunque ambos gobiernos también tienen estrechas relaciones con muchas otras naciones, el nivel de cooperación entre el Reino Unido y los EE. UU. en comercio y comercio, planificación militar, ejecución de operaciones militares, tecnología de armas nucleares e intercambio de inteligencia ha sido descrito como "incomparable" entre las principales potencias mundiales . [1] Se han señalado las estrechas relaciones entre los jefes de gobierno británico y estadounidense, como Margaret Thatcher y Ronald Reagan , así como entre Tony Blair y Bill Clinton y George W. Bush . [2] A nivel diplomático, las características incluyen representaciones públicas recurrentes de la relación como "especial", visitas políticas frecuentes y de alto perfil y un amplio intercambio de información a nivel de trabajo diplomático. [3]

Algunos críticos niegan la existencia de una "relación especial" y la califican de mito. [4] [5] Durante la Crisis de Suez de 1956 , el presidente estadounidense Dwight Eisenhower amenazó con llevar a la quiebra la libra esterlina debido a la invasión británica de Egipto. Thatcher se opuso en privado a la invasión estadounidense de Granada en 1983 , y Reagan presionó inicialmente sin éxito contra la Guerra de las Malvinas de 1982. [2] [6] El expresidente estadounidense Barack Obama consideró a la canciller alemana Angela Merkel como su "socia internacional más cercana" y acusó al primer ministro británico David Cameron de estar "distraído por una serie de otras cosas" durante la intervención militar de 2011 en Libia . [2] [7]

Tras la elección de Donald Trump como presidente de Estados Unidos, el gobierno británico de los primeros ministros Theresa May y Boris Johnson [8] buscó establecer "una nueva relación especial" con la administración Trump . Trump afirmó que su relación con Theresa May era "del más alto nivel de especialidad", [9] y elogió a Johnson como primer ministro y celebró las comparaciones que se habían hecho entre Johnson y él mismo, respaldándolo durante las elecciones de 2019 y refiriéndose a él como "Trump de Gran Bretaña".

Orígenes

Un soldado británico y un soldado estadounidense de pie, a la izquierda, junto a otros representantes de la Alianza de Ocho Naciones de 1900 , en la que el Reino Unido y los Estados Unidos desempeñaron un papel principal.

Aunque la "relación especial" entre el Reino Unido y los EE. UU. fue quizás enfatizada de manera más memorable por Churchill, su existencia e incluso el término mismo habían sido reconocidos desde el siglo XIX, sobre todo por potencias rivales. [10]

Los gobiernos estadounidense y británico eran enemigos cuando comenzaron las relaciones exteriores entre ellos, después de que las colonias estadounidenses declararan su independencia del dominio británico , lo que desencadenó la Guerra de la Independencia de los Estados Unidos . Las relaciones a menudo continuaron tensas hasta mediados del siglo XIX, estallando en un conflicto abierto durante la Guerra de 1812 y nuevamente al borde de la guerra cuando Gran Bretaña casi apoyó a los separatistas Estados Confederados durante el comienzo de la Guerra Civil estadounidense . [ cita requerida ] Los líderes británicos se molestaron constantemente desde la década de 1830 hasta la de 1860 por lo que vieron como concesiones estadounidenses a la multitud, como en la Guerra de Aroostook en 1838-1839 y la disputa fronteriza de Oregón en 1844-1846. Sin embargo, la opinión pública de clase media británica percibió una "relación especial" común entre los dos pueblos basada en su idioma compartido , migraciones, protestantismo evangélico , liberalismo clásico y amplio comercio privado. Ese electorado rechazó la guerra, lo que obligó a Gran Bretaña a apaciguar a Estados Unidos. Durante el asunto de Trent , a finales de 1861, Londres trazó la línea y Washington se retiró. [11]

Las tropas de ambas naciones habían comenzado a luchar lado a lado, a veces espontáneamente en escaramuzas en el extranjero en 1859 , y ambas democracias liberales compartían un vínculo común de sacrificio durante la Primera Guerra Mundial (aunque Estados Unidos nunca fue formalmente miembro de los Aliados , sino que entró en la guerra en 1917 como una autodenominada "Potencia Asociada"). La visita del primer ministro británico Ramsay MacDonald a los EE. UU. en 1930 confirmó su propia creencia en la "relación especial" y, por lo tanto, consideró el Tratado Naval de Washington , en lugar de un resurgimiento de la alianza anglo-japonesa , como la garantía de la paz en el Lejano Oriente . [12]

Sin embargo, como observó el historiador David Reynolds , "Durante la mayor parte del período desde 1919 , las relaciones angloamericanas habían sido frías y a menudo sospechosas. La 'traición' de Estados Unidos a la Liga de las Naciones fue solo la primera de una serie de acciones estadounidenses (sobre deudas de guerra, rivalidad naval , la crisis de Manchuria de 1931-2 y la Depresión ) que convencieron a los líderes británicos de que no se podía confiar en Estados Unidos". [13] Del mismo modo, como recordó el Secretario de Estado del presidente estadounidense Harry S. Truman , Dean Acheson , "Por supuesto que existía una relación única entre Gran Bretaña y Estados Unidos: nuestro idioma y nuestra historia comunes lo aseguraban. Pero única no significaba afectuosa. Habíamos luchado contra Inglaterra como enemigo con tanta frecuencia como habíamos luchado a su lado como aliado". [14]

Énfasis churchilliano

El estallido de la Segunda Guerra Mundial provocó el rápido surgimiento de una relación inequívocamente positiva entre las dos naciones. La caída de Francia en 1940 ha sido descrita como un evento decisivo en las relaciones internacionales , que llevó a la Relación Especial a desplazar a la Entente Cordiale como el pivote del sistema internacional. [15] Durante la guerra, un observador señaló, "Gran Bretaña y los Estados Unidos integraron sus esfuerzos militares en un grado sin precedentes entre los principales aliados en la historia de la guerra". [16] "Cada vez que deba elegir entre usted y Roosevelt ", gritó Churchill al general Charles de Gaulle , el líder de la Francia Libre , en 1945, "elegiré a Roosevelt". [17] Entre 1939 y 1945, Churchill y Roosevelt intercambiaron 1.700 cartas y telegramas y se reunieron 11 veces. Churchill estimó que tuvieron 120 días de estrecho contacto personal. [18] En una ocasión, Roosevelt fue a la habitación de Churchill cuando Churchill acababa de salir del baño. A su regreso de Washington, Churchill le dijo al rey Jorge VI : «Señor, creo que soy el único hombre del mundo que ha recibido a la cabeza de una nación desnuda». [19] Roosevelt encontró el encuentro divertido y le comentó a su secretaria privada, Grace Tully : «Sabe, es rosa y blanco por todas partes». [20]

Un cartel de poco después de la Primera Guerra Mundial que muestra a Britannia del brazo del Tío Sam , simbolizando la alianza angloamericana.

La madre de Churchill era ciudadana estadounidense, y él sentía profundamente los vínculos entre los dos pueblos de habla inglesa. Utilizó por primera vez el término "relación especial" el 16 de febrero de 1944, cuando dijo que su "más profunda convicción era que, a menos que Gran Bretaña y los Estados Unidos se unan en una relación especial... se producirá otra guerra destructiva". [21] Lo utilizó de nuevo en 1945 para describir no sólo la relación anglo-estadounidense, sino la relación de Gran Bretaña con los estadounidenses y los canadienses . [22] El New York Times Herald citó a Churchill en noviembre de 1945:

No debemos abandonar nuestra relación especial con Estados Unidos y Canadá en relación con la bomba atómica y debemos ayudar a Estados Unidos a proteger esta arma como un encargo sagrado para el mantenimiento de la paz. [22]

Churchill volvió a utilizar la frase un año después, al comienzo de la Guerra Fría , esta vez para destacar la relación especial entre Estados Unidos y las naciones de habla inglesa de la Commonwealth británica y el Imperio Británico . La ocasión fue su " Discurso sobre los nervios de la paz ", pronunciado en Fulton, Missouri , el 5 de marzo de 1946:

Ni la prevención segura de la guerra ni el continuo crecimiento de la organización mundial se lograrán sin lo que he llamado la asociación fraternal de los pueblos de habla inglesa... una relación especial entre la Commonwealth británica y el Imperio y los Estados Unidos. La asociación fraternal requiere no sólo la creciente amistad y comprensión mutua entre nuestros dos vastos pero afines sistemas de sociedad, sino la continuación de la relación íntima entre nuestros asesores militares, que conduzca al estudio común de los peligros potenciales, la similitud de las armas y los manuales de instrucciones, y al intercambio de oficiales y cadetes en las escuelas técnicas. Debería llevar consigo la continuación de las actuales facilidades para la seguridad mutua mediante el uso conjunto de todas las bases de la Armada y la Fuerza Aérea en posesión de cualquiera de los dos países en todo el mundo. Sin embargo, hay una pregunta importante que debemos hacernos. ¿Sería una relación especial entre los Estados Unidos y la Commonwealth británica incompatible con nuestra lealtad primordial a la Organización Mundial? Respondo que, por el contrario, es probablemente el único medio por el cual esa organización alcanzará su estatura y fuerza plenas.

En opinión de un especialista en relaciones internacionales, "el éxito del Reino Unido en obtener el compromiso de cooperación de los EE.UU. en el mundo de posguerra fue un gran triunfo, dado el aislamiento del período de entreguerras ". [23] Un diplomático británico de alto rango en Moscú, Thomas Brimelow , admitió: "La cualidad que más inquieta al gobierno soviético es la capacidad que nos atribuyen de lograr que otros luchen por nosotros... no nos respetan a nosotros, sino nuestra capacidad de reunir amigos". [24] Por el contrario, "el éxito o el fracaso de los objetivos de paz económica exterior de los Estados Unidos dependía casi por completo de su capacidad para ganar o extraer la cooperación de Gran Bretaña". [25]

Reflexionando sobre esta simbiosis, la primera ministra británica Margaret Thatcher declaró en 1982: «La relación angloamericana ha hecho más por la defensa y el futuro de la libertad que cualquier otra alianza en el mundo». [26]

Aunque la mayoría de los funcionarios gubernamentales de ambos lados han apoyado la Relación Especial, ha habido fuertes críticos. El periodista británico Guy Arnold (1932-2020) la denunció en 2014 como una "enfermedad del cuerpo político de Gran Bretaña que necesita ser erradicada". En cambio, pidió relaciones más estrechas con Europa y Rusia para "deshacerse del íncubo estadounidense". [27]

Cooperación militar

El intenso nivel de cooperación militar entre el Reino Unido y los EE. UU. comenzó con la creación del Estado Mayor Conjunto en diciembre de 1941, un comando militar con autoridad sobre todas las operaciones estadounidenses y británicas. Después del final de la Segunda Guerra Mundial, la estructura de comando conjunto se disolvió, pero la estrecha cooperación militar entre las naciones se reanudó a principios de la década de 1950 con el inicio de la Guerra Fría. [1] [28] La Misión Tizard catalizó la cooperación tecnológica aliada durante la Segunda Guerra Mundial .

Bases militares compartidas

Reunión del Jefe del Estado Mayor Conjunto de los Estados Unidos y el Jefe del Estado Mayor de la Defensa del Reino Unido en 2006

Desde la Segunda Guerra Mundial y el posterior bloqueo de Berlín , Estados Unidos ha mantenido fuerzas sustanciales en Gran Bretaña. En julio de 1948, comenzó el primer despliegue estadounidense con el estacionamiento de bombarderos B-29 . Actualmente, una base importante es la instalación de radar RAF Fylingdales , parte del Sistema de Alerta Temprana de Misiles Balísticos de EE. UU. aunque la base es operada bajo mando británico y solo tiene un representante de la Fuerza Aérea de EE. UU. , en gran parte por razones administrativas. Varias bases con una presencia estadounidense significativa incluyen RAF Menwith Hill (a poca distancia de RAF Fylingdales ), RAF Lakenheath , RAF Mildenhall (programada para cerrar en 2027), RAF Fairford (la única base para bombarderos estratégicos estadounidenses en Europa), RAF Croughton (no es una base aérea sino un centro de comunicaciones militares) y RAF Welford (un depósito de almacenamiento de municiones). [29]

Tras el fin de la Guerra Fría, que fue la razón principal de su presencia, el número de bases estadounidenses en el Reino Unido se ha reducido en consonancia con el número de militares estadounidenses en todo el mundo. Sin embargo, las bases se han utilizado ampliamente en apoyo de diversas operaciones de mantenimiento de la paz y ofensivas de la década de 1990 y principios del siglo XXI.

Las dos naciones también operan conjuntamente en las instalaciones militares británicas de Diego García en el Territorio Británico del Océano Índico y en la Isla Ascensión , una dependencia de Santa Elena en el Océano Atlántico. La Armada de los Estados Unidos también hace uso ocasional de las bases navales británicas en Gibraltar y Bermudas , y la Fuerza Aérea de los Estados Unidos utiliza la RAF Akrotiri en Chipre , principalmente para vuelos de reconocimiento. [30]

Desarrollo de armas nucleares

El Acuerdo de Quebec de 1943 allanó el camino para que los dos países desarrollaran armas atómicas en paralelo; los británicos entregaron documentos vitales de su propio proyecto Tube Alloys y enviaron una delegación para ayudar en el trabajo del Proyecto Manhattan . Los estadounidenses luego se reservaron los resultados del trabajo en virtud de la Ley McMahon de posguerra , pero después de que el Reino Unido desarrollara sus propias armas termonucleares , Estados Unidos acordó suministrar sistemas de lanzamiento, diseños y material nuclear para las ojivas británicas a través del Acuerdo de Defensa Mutua entre Estados Unidos y el Reino Unido de 1958 .

El Reino Unido adquirió primero el sistema Polaris y luego el sistema estadounidense Trident , que sigue en uso. El acuerdo de 1958 dio al Reino Unido acceso a las instalaciones del Sitio de Pruebas de Nevada y, a partir de 1963, realizó un total de 21 pruebas subterráneas allí antes del cese de las pruebas en 1991. [31] El acuerdo bajo el cual opera la asociación se actualizó en 2004; los activistas antinucleares argumentaron que la renovación puede violar el Tratado de No Proliferación Nuclear de 1968. [32] [33] Los Estados Unidos y el Reino Unido llevaron a cabo conjuntamente experimentos nucleares subcríticos en 2002 y 2006 para determinar la eficacia de las reservas existentes, tal como lo permite el Tratado de Prohibición Completa de los Ensayos Nucleares de 1998. [34] [35]

Adquisiciones militares

La administración Reagan ofreció a Gran Bretaña la oportunidad de comprar el avión furtivo F-117 Nighthawk mientras era un programa negro . [36] El Reino Unido es el único socio internacional colaborador, o de Nivel Uno, en el mayor proyecto de adquisición de aeronaves estadounidenses de la historia, el programa F-35 Lightning II . [37] [38] El Reino Unido participó en la redacción de la especificación y la selección y su mayor contratista de defensa , BAE Systems , es socio del contratista principal estadounidense Lockheed Martin . BAE Systems es también el mayor proveedor extranjero del Departamento de Defensa de Estados Unidos y se le ha permitido comprar importantes empresas de defensa estadounidenses como Lockheed Martin Aerospace Electronic Systems y United Defense .

Estados Unidos opera varios diseños británicos, entre ellos el Chobham Armour , el Harrier GR9 / AV-8B Harrier II y el T-45 Goshawk de la Armada estadounidense . El Reino Unido también opera varios diseños estadounidenses, entre ellos el misil antitanque Javelin , la artillería con cohetes M270 , el helicóptero de combate Apache , el C-130 Hercules y el avión de transporte C-17 Globemaster .

Otras áreas de cooperación

Intercambio de inteligencia

La RAF Menwith Hill , cerca de Harrogate , Inglaterra , proporciona servicios de apoyo de comunicaciones e inteligencia tanto al Reino Unido como a los EE. UU.

Una piedra angular de la Relación Especial es la recopilación y el intercambio de inteligencia, que se originó durante la Segunda Guerra Mundial con el intercambio de conocimientos de descifrado de códigos y condujo al Acuerdo BRUSA de 1943 , que se firmó en Bletchley Park . Después de la guerra, el objetivo común de monitorear y contrarrestar la amenaza del comunismo impulsó el Acuerdo de Seguridad entre el Reino Unido y los EE. UU. de 1948. Este acuerdo reunió a las organizaciones SIGINT de los EE. UU., el Reino Unido, Canadá, Australia y Nueva Zelanda y todavía está vigente en la actualidad ( Five Eyes ). El jefe de la estación de la Agencia Central de Inteligencia en Londres asiste a cada reunión semanal del Comité Conjunto de Inteligencia Británico . [39]

Un ejemplo actual de esa cooperación es la Comunidad UKUSA , que comprende la Agencia de Seguridad Nacional de los Estados Unidos , la Sede de Comunicaciones del Gobierno de Gran Bretaña, la Dirección de Señales de Defensa de Australia y el Establecimiento de Seguridad de las Comunicaciones de Canadá , que colaboran en ECHELON , un sistema global de recopilación de inteligencia. En virtud de los acuerdos bilaterales clasificados, los miembros de UKUSA no se espían entre sí. [40]

Tras el descubrimiento del complot del avión transatlántico de 2006 , la CIA comenzó a ayudar al Servicio de Seguridad (MI5) mediante la gestión de sus propias redes de agentes en la comunidad británica-pakistaní . Un funcionario de inteligencia comentó sobre la amenaza contra Estados Unidos por parte de los islamistas británicos : "El temor es que algo así no sólo mate a gente, sino que provoque una ruptura histórica entre Estados Unidos y el Reino Unido". [41]

Política económica

Estados Unidos es la mayor fuente de inversión extranjera directa para el Reino Unido, y el Reino Unido es asimismo el mayor inversor extranjero directo individual en Estados Unidos. [42] El comercio y el capital británicos han sido componentes importantes de la economía estadounidense desde sus inicios coloniales. En comercio y finanzas, la Relación Especial ha sido descrita como "bien equilibrada", con la regulación de la City de Londres en los últimos años atrayendo una salida masiva de capital de Wall Street . [43] Los sectores clave para los exportadores británicos a Estados Unidos son la aviación, la industria aeroespacial , la propiedad comercial , los productos químicos y farmacéuticos y la maquinaria pesada . [44]

Las ideas británicas, tanto clásicas como modernas, también han ejercido una profunda influencia en la política económica estadounidense, en particular las del historiador Adam Smith sobre el libre comercio y las del economista John Maynard Keynes sobre el gasto anticíclico . Los inversores estadounidenses y británicos comparten actitudes empresariales hacia el mercado inmobiliario , y las industrias de la moda y la música de ambos países ejercen una gran influencia mutua. [45] Los lazos comerciales se han visto reforzados por la globalización , y ambos gobiernos coinciden en la necesidad de una reforma monetaria en China y de una reforma educativa en el país para aumentar su competitividad. [45] En 2007, el embajador estadounidense Robert H. Tuttle sugirió a los líderes empresariales británicos que la Relación Especial podría utilizarse "para promover el comercio mundial y limitar el daño medioambiental , así como para combatir el terrorismo". [46]

En una conferencia de prensa en la que se hicieron varias referencias a la Relación Especial, el Secretario de Estado de los EE.UU., John Kerry , en Londres con el Secretario de Asuntos Exteriores del Reino Unido, William Hague , el 9 de septiembre de 2013, dijo:

No sólo somos los mayores inversores mutuos en cada uno de nuestros países, sino que el hecho es que cada día casi un millón de personas van a trabajar a los Estados Unidos para empresas británicas que están en los Estados Unidos, al igual que más de un millón de personas van a trabajar aquí, en Gran Bretaña, para empresas estadounidenses que están aquí. Así que estamos enormemente unidos, obviamente. Y estamos comprometidos a hacer que las relaciones entre los Estados Unidos y el Reino Unido y entre los Estados Unidos y la Unión Europea sean aún más fuertes como motores de nuestra prosperidad. [47]

Historia

La primera ministra británica Margaret Thatcher y el presidente estadounidense Ronald Reagan . Su fuerte vínculo fue un claro ejemplo de las relaciones entre el Reino Unido y los Estados Unidos a finales del siglo XX.

Antes de su colaboración durante la Segunda Guerra Mundial, las relaciones anglo-americanas habían sido más distantes. El presidente Woodrow Wilson y el primer ministro David Lloyd George en París habían sido los primeros líderes de las dos naciones en reunirse cara a cara, [48] pero no habían disfrutado de nada que pudiera describirse como una "relación especial", aunque el ministro de Asuntos Exteriores de Lloyd George en tiempos de guerra , Arthur Balfour , se llevó bien con Wilson durante su estancia en los EE. UU. y ayudó a convencer al presidente, hasta entonces escéptico, de que entrara en la Primera Guerra Mundial. Gran Bretaña, que anteriormente había sido el socio predominante de los dos países, se había encontrado en un papel más bien secundario a partir de 1941.

Las relaciones personales entre los primeros ministros británicos y los presidentes estadounidenses han afectado a menudo a la Relación Especial entre los EE. UU. y el Reino Unido. El primer ejemplo fue la estrecha relación entre Winston Churchill y Franklin Roosevelt, que de hecho eran parientes lejanos. [49] Churchill dedicó mucho tiempo y esfuerzo a cultivar la relación, lo que tuvo un impacto positivo en el esfuerzo bélico. Dos grandes arquitectos de la Relación Especial a nivel práctico fueron el mariscal de campo Sir John Dill y el general George Marshall , cuyas excelentes relaciones personales y puestos de alto nivel (Roosevelt era especialmente cercano a Marshall) ayudaron a fortalecer la alianza. Durante la guerra se crearon vínculos importantes, como los Jefes de Estado Mayor Combinados.

La política diplomática detrás de la Relación Especial tenía dos vertientes, abarcando un fuerte apoyo personal entre jefes de estado y una ayuda militar y política igualmente franca. Las relaciones personales más cordiales entre primeros ministros británicos y presidentes estadounidenses siempre han sido aquellas basadas en objetivos compartidos. Los puntos culminantes de la Relación Especial incluyen los vínculos entre Harold Macmillan (quien, como Churchill, tenía una madre estadounidense) y John F. Kennedy ; entre James Callaghan y Jimmy Carter , quienes eran amigos personales cercanos a pesar de sus diferencias de personalidad; entre Margaret Thatcher y Ronald Reagan ; y más recientemente entre Tony Blair y Bill Clinton y George W. Bush . Los puntos bajos en la relación entre los EE. UU. y el Reino Unido se han producido debido a desacuerdos sobre política exterior, como la oposición de Dwight D. Eisenhower a las operaciones del Reino Unido en Suez bajo Anthony Eden y la negativa de Harold Wilson a entrar en la guerra de Vietnam . [50]

Cronología

Churchill y Roosevelt (mayo de 1940 – abril de 1945)

Churchill y Roosevelt a bordo del HMS Prince of Wales en 1941

Cuando Winston Churchill asumió el cargo de primer ministro, el Reino Unido ya había entrado en la Segunda Guerra Mundial . Inmediatamente después de que Churchill comenzara su mandato como primer ministro, tuvo lugar la batalla de Dunkerque . [51] [52]

Antes de que Churchill asumiera el cargo de primer ministro, el presidente Roosevelt había mantenido una correspondencia secreta y frecuente con él. Su correspondencia había comenzado en septiembre de 1939, al comienzo mismo de la Segunda Guerra Mundial. En estas comunicaciones privadas, los dos habían estado discutiendo formas en las que Estados Unidos podría apoyar a Gran Bretaña en su esfuerzo bélico. [53] Sin embargo, en el momento en que Winston Churchill asumió el cargo de primer ministro, Roosevelt se acercaba al final de su segundo mandato y estaba considerando la posibilidad de presentarse a las elecciones para un tercer mandato sin precedentes [52] (no haría ningún pronunciamiento público sobre esto hasta la Convención Nacional Demócrata de ese año ). [18] A partir de la experiencia estadounidense durante la Primera Guerra Mundial , Roosevelt juzgó que la participación en la Segunda Guerra Mundial probablemente sería una inevitabilidad. Esta fue una razón clave para la decisión de Roosevelt de romper con la tradición y buscar un tercer mandato. Roosevelt deseaba ser presidente cuando Estados Unidos finalmente se viera arrastrado a entrar en el conflicto. [52] Sin embargo, para ganar un tercer mandato, Roosevelt le hizo promesas al pueblo estadounidense de que los mantendría fuera de la guerra. [52]

En noviembre de 1940, tras la victoria de Roosevelt en las elecciones presidenciales, Churchill le envió una carta de felicitación,

Oré por vuestro éxito… estamos entrando en una fase sombría de lo que inevitablemente debe ser una guerra prolongada y cada vez más amplia. [52]

Tras haber prometido al público estadounidense que evitaría entrar en cualquier guerra extranjera, Roosevelt fue tan lejos como la opinión pública le permitió al proporcionar ayuda financiera y militar a Gran Bretaña, Francia y China. En una charla de diciembre de 1940, denominada Discurso del Arsenal de la Democracia , Roosevelt declaró: "Esta no es una charla informal sobre la guerra. Es una charla sobre seguridad nacional". Continuó declarando la importancia del apoyo estadounidense al esfuerzo bélico de Gran Bretaña, enmarcándolo como una cuestión de seguridad nacional para los EE. UU. Como el público estadounidense se oponía a la participación en el conflicto, Roosevelt trató de enfatizar que era fundamental ayudar a los británicos para evitar que el conflicto llegara a las costas estadounidenses. Su objetivo era presentar el esfuerzo bélico británico como beneficioso para los EE. UU. al argumentar que contendrían la amenaza nazi para que no se extendiera a través del Atlántico. [52]

Si Gran Bretaña cae, las potencias del Eje estarán en condiciones de desplegar enormes recursos militares y navales contra este hemisferio ... Somos el arsenal de la democracia. Nuestra política nacional es mantener la guerra alejada de este país. [52]

—  Franklin D. Roosevelt, charla informal pronunciada el 29 de diciembre de 1940
Copia editada por Churchill del borrador final de la Carta del Atlántico

Para ayudar al esfuerzo bélico británico, Roosevelt promulgó la política de Préstamo y Arriendo y redactó la Carta del Atlántico junto con Churchill. [54] Estados Unidos finalmente se unió al esfuerzo bélico en diciembre de 1941, bajo el liderazgo de Roosevelt. [55]

Roosevelt y Churchill se tenían un cariño relativo. Los unía su pasión compartida por el tabaco y los licores , y su interés mutuo por la historia y los acorazados . [54] Churchill escribió más tarde: "Sentí que estaba en contacto con un gran hombre, que también era un amigo de corazón cálido y el principal defensor de las nobles causas a las que servíamos". [54]

Una anécdota que se ha contado para ilustrar la intimidad del vínculo entre Churchill y Roosevelt alega que una vez, mientras recibía a Churchill en la Casa Blanca , Roosevelt se detuvo en el dormitorio en el que se alojaba el Primer Ministro para conversar con él. Churchill abrió su puerta en estado de desnudez, comentando: "Verá, señor presidente, no tengo nada que ocultarle". Se dice que el presidente se lo tomó con buen humor, y más tarde bromeó con un asistente diciendo que Churchill era "rosa y blanco por todas partes". [54] Entre 1939 y 1945, Roosevelt y Churchill intercambiaron aproximadamente 1700 cartas y telegramas y se reunieron 11 veces. [56] [57] En el 70 cumpleaños de Churchill, Roosevelt le escribió: "Es divertido estar en la misma década que tú". [48] A partir de Roosevelt y Churchill, Estados Unidos y el Reino Unido trabajaron juntos en estrecha colaboración para establecer el FMI , el Banco Mundial y la OTAN . [58] [59]

Churchill y Truman (abril de 1945 – julio de 1945)

Truman estrecha la mano de Churchill el 16 de julio de 1945 (el primer día de la Conferencia de Potsdam, y sólo diez días antes de que Churchill perdiera el cargo de primer ministro tras el anuncio de los resultados de las elecciones de 1945) .

Roosevelt murió en abril de 1945, poco después de cumplir su cuarto mandato, y fue sucedido por su vicepresidente , Harry Truman . Churchill y Truman también desarrollaron una fuerte relación entre sí. Si bien se entristeció por la muerte de Roosevelt, Churchill fue un firme partidario de Truman en su presidencia temprana, llamándolo "el tipo de líder que el mundo necesita cuando más lo necesita". En la Conferencia de Potsdam , Truman y Churchill, junto con Joseph Stalin , llegaron a acuerdos para establecer las fronteras de Europa. [60]

Attlee y Truman (julio de 1945 – octubre de 1951)

Cuatro meses después de la presidencia de Truman, el partido de Churchill sufrió una sorprendente derrota en las urnas y Clement Attlee se convirtió en primer ministro. [61]

Attlee, diputado en el gobierno de coalición de Churchill durante la guerra, se encontraba en Estados Unidos en el momento de la muerte de Roosevelt, por lo que se había reunido con Truman inmediatamente después de que éste asumiera el cargo. Los dos habían llegado a simpatizar. [48] Sin embargo, Attlee y Truman nunca llegaron a ser especialmente cercanos entre sí. Durante sus mandatos simultáneos como jefes de gobierno, sólo se reunieron en tres ocasiones. Los dos no mantuvieron correspondencia regular. No obstante, su relación de trabajo entre ellos siguió siendo sólida. [61]

Cuando Attlee asumió el cargo de primer ministro, las negociaciones en la Conferencia de Potsdam, que había comenzado el 17 de julio, aún no habían concluido. Attlee ocupó el lugar de Churchill en la conferencia una vez que fue nombrado primer ministro el 26 de julio. Por lo tanto, los primeros dieciséis días de Attlee como primer ministro se dedicaron a gestionar las negociaciones en la conferencia. [62] Attlee voló a Washington en diciembre de 1950 para apoyar a Truman en su lucha contra Douglas MacArthur . [48] En 1951, Truman presionó a Attlee para que no interviniera contra Mossadeq en Irán . [63] En su época como primer ministro, Attlee también logró convencer a Truman de que aceptara una mayor cooperación nuclear. [48]

Churchill y Truman (octubre de 1951 – enero de 1953)

Truman y Churchill de pie frente a Blair House en 1949

Churchill se convirtió en primer ministro nuevamente en octubre de 1951. Había mantenido su relación con Truman durante su período de seis años como líder de la oposición . En 1946, por invitación de Truman, Churchill visitó los EE. UU. para pronunciar un discurso en el Westminster College en el estado natal de Truman, Missouri . El discurso, que sería recordado como el discurso de la "Cortina de Hierro" , afectó una mayor atención pública al cisma que se había desarrollado entre la Unión Soviética y el resto de las potencias aliadas. Durante este viaje, Churchill perdió una cantidad significativa de efectivo en un juego de póquer con Harry Truman y sus asesores. [64] [65] En 1947, Churchill había escrito a Truman un memorando desatendido recomendando que Estados Unidos realizara un ataque preventivo con bomba atómica sobre Moscú antes de que la Unión Soviética pudiera adquirir armas nucleares por sí misma. [66] [67]

Churchill y Eden visitaron Washington en enero de 1952. En ese momento, la administración de Truman apoyaba los planes para una Comunidad Europea de Defensa con la esperanza de que permitiera a Alemania Occidental rearmarse, lo que en consecuencia permitiría a los EE. UU. reducir el número de tropas estadounidenses estacionadas en Alemania. Churchill se opuso a la EDC, sintiendo que no podría funcionar. También pidió, sin éxito, que los EE. UU. comprometieran sus fuerzas para apoyar a Gran Bretaña en Egipto y Oriente Medio. Esto no tenía atractivo para Truman. Truman esperaba que los británicos ayudaran a los estadounidenses en su lucha contra las fuerzas comunistas en Corea , pero sentía que apoyar a los británicos en Oriente Medio sería ayudarlos en sus esfuerzos por prevenir la descolonización, lo que no haría nada para frustrar el comunismo. [63] Truman optó por no buscar la reelección en 1952, y su presidencia terminó en enero de 1953.

Eisenhower (centro) se sienta entre Churchill (izquierda) y Bernard Montgomery en una conferencia de la OTAN en octubre de 1951. Eisenhower sería elegido presidente poco más de un año después.

Churchill y Eisenhower (enero de 1953 – abril de 1955)

Dwight D. Eisenhower y Churchill se conocían entre sí, ya que ambos habían sido líderes importantes del esfuerzo aliado durante la Segunda Guerra Mundial. [48]

El 5 de enero de 1953, cuando Eisenhower era presidente electo , Winston Churchill tuvo una serie de reuniones con Eisenhower durante una visita de Churchill a los Estados Unidos. [68] Las relaciones se tensaron durante la presidencia de Eisenhower por la indignación de Eisenhower por el intento a medias de Churchill de establecer un "parlamento en la cumbre" con Joseph Stalin. [48]

Edén y Eisenhower (abril de 1955 – enero de 1957)

Al igual que su predecesor, Anthony Eden había trabajado estrechamente con Eisenhower durante la Segunda Guerra Mundial. [48]

Crisis de Suez

Cuando Eden asumió el poder, Gamal Abdel Nasser había fomentado el nacionalismo egipcio. Nasser tomó el control del vital Canal de Suez en julio de 1956. Eden hizo un acuerdo secreto con Francia e Israel para invadir Egipto. Eisenhower había advertido repetidamente a Eden que Estados Unidos no aceptaría la intervención militar británica. Cuando la invasión se produjo de todos modos, Estados Unidos la denunció en las Naciones Unidas y utilizó el poder financiero para obligar a los británicos a retirarse por completo. Gran Bretaña perdió su prestigio y su poderoso papel en los asuntos de Medio Oriente, para ser reemplazada por los estadounidenses. Eden, con mala salud, se vio obligado a retirarse. [69] [70] [71]

Macmillan y Eisenhower (enero de 1957 – enero de 1961)

Macmillan y Eisenhower se reúnen en marzo de 1957 para mantener conversaciones en Bermudas , con el objetivo de reparar las relaciones angloamericanas tras la crisis de Suez del año anterior .

Una vez que asumió el cargo, Harold Macmillan trabajó para deshacer la tensión que la Relación Especial había generado en los años anteriores. [48] Macmillan bromeó célebremente diciendo que era el deber histórico de Gran Bretaña guiar el poder de los EE. UU. como los antiguos griegos lo habían hecho con los romanos . [72] Se esforzó por ampliar la Relación Especial más allá de la concepción de Churchill de una Unión de Habla Inglesa hacia una "Comunidad Atlántica" más inclusiva. [73] Su tema clave, "la interdependencia de las naciones del Mundo Libre y la asociación que debe mantenerse entre Europa y los Estados Unidos", fue uno que Kennedy retomó posteriormente. [74]

Sin embargo, Eisenhower aumentó la tensión con el Reino Unido al sabotear la política de distensión de Macmillan con la Unión Soviética en la cumbre de París de mayo de 1960. [75]

Macmillan y Kennedy (enero de 1961 – octubre de 1963)

Macmillan y Kennedy en Key West en 1961

Kennedy era un anglófilo . [76] Su padre había servido anteriormente como embajador de los Estados Unidos en el Reino Unido y su hermana había sido marquesa de Hartington, cuyo marido era, casualmente, sobrino de la esposa de Macmillan . [48]

La inteligencia británica ayudó a Estados Unidos a evaluar la crisis de los misiles cubanos . Kennedy apreciaba el liderazgo firme de Macmillan y admiraba su Tratado de Prohibición Parcial de los Ensayos Nucleares . [48]

Crisis de Skybolt

La Relación Especial fue puesta a prueba quizás más severamente por la crisis del Skybolt de 1962, cuando Kennedy canceló un proyecto conjunto sin consulta. El Skybolt era un misil nuclear aire-tierra que podía penetrar el espacio aéreo soviético y extendería la vida del disuasivo británico, que consistía únicamente en bombas de hidrógeno en caída libre. Londres vio la cancelación como una reducción del disuasivo nuclear británico . La crisis se resolvió durante una serie de compromisos que llevaron a la Marina Real a comprar el misil estadounidense UGM-27 Polaris y a construir los submarinos de la clase Resolution para lanzarlos. [77] [78] [79] [80] Los debates sobre el Skybolt fueron de alto secreto, pero las tensiones se exacerbaron cuando Dean Acheson , exsecretario de Estado, desafió públicamente la Relación Especial y marginó la contribución británica a la alianza occidental . Acheson dijo:

Gran Bretaña ha perdido un imperio y todavía no ha encontrado un papel que desempeñar. El intento de desempeñar un papel de potencia independiente, es decir, un papel separado de Europa, un papel basado en una «relación especial» con los Estados Unidos, un papel basado en ser el jefe de una « Commonwealth » que no tiene estructura política, ni unidad, ni fuerza y ​​que disfruta de una relación económica frágil y precaria, ese papel está a punto de agotarse. [81]

Un misil británico UGM-27 Polaris en el Museo Imperial de la Guerra de Londres

Al enterarse del ataque de Acheson, Macmillan tronó en público:

En la medida en que pareció denigrar la resolución y la voluntad de Gran Bretaña y del pueblo británico, el Sr. Acheson ha caído en un error que ha sido cometido por mucha gente en el curso de los últimos cuatrocientos años, incluyendo a Felipe de España , Luis XIV , Napoleón , el Káiser y Hitler . También parece malinterpretar el papel de la Commonwealth en los asuntos mundiales. En la medida en que se refirió al intento de Gran Bretaña de desempeñar un papel de potencia independiente como algo que está a punto de concretarse, esto sería aceptable si hubiera extendido este concepto a los EE.UU. y a todas las demás naciones del mundo libre. Esta es la doctrina de la interdependencia, que debe aplicarse en el mundo de hoy, si se quiere asegurar la paz y la prosperidad. No sé si el Sr. Acheson aceptaría la secuencia lógica de su propio argumento. Estoy seguro de que la administración estadounidense y el pueblo estadounidense lo reconocen plenamente. [82]

El inminente colapso de la alianza entre las dos potencias termonucleares obligó a Kennedy a dar un giro de 180 grados en la cumbre angloamericana de Nasáu , donde aceptó vender el Polaris como reemplazo del Skybolt, que había sido cancelado. Richard E. Neustadt, en su investigación oficial, concluyó que la crisis en la Relación Especial había estallado porque "los 'jefes' del presidente no hicieron una evaluación estratégica adecuada de las intenciones de Gran Bretaña y sus capacidades". [83]

La crisis de Skybolt con Kennedy se sumó al fracaso de Eisenhower en la cumbre de París de mayo de 1960 de la política de distensión de Macmillan con la Unión Soviética, y el desencanto resultante del Primer Ministro con la Relación Especial contribuyó a su decisión de buscar una alternativa en la membresía británica en la Comunidad Económica Europea (CEE). [75] Según un analista reciente: "Lo que el Primer Ministro adoptó en efecto fue una estrategia de cobertura en la que se mantendrían los lazos con Washington mientras que al mismo tiempo se buscaba una nueva base de poder en Europa". [84] Aun así, Kennedy aseguró a Macmillan "que las relaciones entre Estados Unidos y el Reino Unido se fortalecerían, no se debilitarían, si el Reino Unido avanzaba hacia la membresía". [85]

Douglas-Home y Kennedy (octubre de 1963–noviembre de 1963)

Kennedy recibe a Douglas-Home (el entonces secretario de Asuntos Exteriores) en la Casa Blanca en 1962

Alec Douglas-Home sólo entró en la carrera para reemplazar al renunciante Macmillan como líder del Partido Conservador después de enterarse por el embajador británico en los EE. UU. que la administración Kennedy estaba inquieta ante la perspectiva de que Quintin Hogg fuera primer ministro. [86] Douglas-Home, sin embargo, sólo serviría como primer ministro por poco más de un mes antes de que Kennedy fuera asesinado .

En Inglaterra, el asesinato de Kennedy en noviembre de 1963 causó una profunda conmoción y tristeza, expresada por muchos políticos, líderes religiosos y luminarias de la literatura y las artes. El arzobispo de Canterbury dirigió un servicio conmemorativo en la catedral de San Pablo. Sir Laurence Olivier, al final de su siguiente actuación, pidió un momento de silencio, seguido de la interpretación del himno nacional. El primer ministro Douglas-Home dirigió los homenajes parlamentarios a Kennedy, a quien llamó "el más leal y fiel de los aliados". [87] Douglas-Home se mostró visiblemente molesto durante sus comentarios, ya que estaba verdaderamente triste por la muerte de Kennedy. Le había caído bien Kennedy y había comenzado a establecer una relación de trabajo positiva con él. [88]

Tras su asesinato, el gobierno británico solicitó la aprobación para construir un monumento al presidente Kennedy, en parte para demostrar la fuerza de la Relación Especial. Sin embargo, la débil respuesta popular a su ambiciosa campaña de recaudación de fondos fue una sorpresa y sugirió una oposición de base al difunto presidente, sus políticas y los Estados Unidos. [87]

Douglas-Home y Johnson (noviembre de 1963 – octubre de 1964)

Douglas-Home tenía una relación mucho más tensa con el sucesor de Kennedy, Lyndon B. Johnson . Douglas-Home no logró desarrollar una buena relación con Lyndon Johnson. Sus gobiernos tenían un serio desacuerdo sobre la cuestión del comercio británico con Cuba. [89]

Las relaciones entre las dos naciones empeoraron después de que los autobuses British Leyland fueran vendidos a Cuba , [90] socavando así la eficacia del embargo de los Estados Unidos contra Cuba . [90] El Partido Conservador de Douglas-Home perdió las elecciones generales de 1964 , por lo que perdió su puesto como primer ministro. Sólo había servido como primer ministro durante 363 días, el segundo mandato más corto del Reino Unido del siglo XX. A pesar de su inusual brevedad (y debido al asesinato de Kennedy), el mandato de Douglas-Home se había superpuesto con dos presidencias estadounidenses. [90]

Wilson y Johnson (octubre de 1964 – enero de 1969)

Wilson y Johnson se reúnen en la Casa Blanca en 1966

El primer ministro Harold Wilson reformuló la alianza como una "relación cercana", [91] pero ni él ni el presidente Lyndon B. Johnson tenían experiencia directa en política exterior. [92] Johnson envió al secretario de estado Dean Rusk como jefe de la delegación estadounidense al funeral de estado de Winston Churchill en enero de 1965, en lugar del nuevo vicepresidente Hubert Humphrey . El propio Johnson había sido hospitalizado con gripe y sus médicos le habían aconsejado que no asistiera al funeral. [93] Este desaire percibido generó muchas críticas contra el presidente, tanto en el Reino Unido como en los EE. UU. [94] [95] Y el intento de Wilson de mediar en Vietnam , donde el Reino Unido era copresidente con la Unión Soviética de la Conferencia de Ginebra , no fue bien recibido por el presidente. "No te diré cómo gobernar Malasia y tú no nos digas cómo gobernar Vietnam", espetó Johnson en 1965. [85] Sin embargo, las relaciones se mantuvieron gracias al reconocimiento de EE. UU. de que Wilson estaba siendo criticado en casa por su izquierda laborista neutralista por no condenar la participación estadounidense en la guerra. [96] [97]

El secretario de Defensa de Estados Unidos, Robert McNamara, pidió a Gran Bretaña que enviara tropas a Vietnam como "términos no escritos de la Relación Especial" [98] . Wilson aceptó ayudar de muchas maneras, pero se negó a enviar fuerzas regulares, sólo instructores de fuerzas especiales . Australia y Nueva Zelanda sí enviaron fuerzas regulares a Vietnam. [99] [100]

El apoyo de la administración Johnson a los préstamos del FMI retrasó la devaluación de la libra esterlina hasta 1967. [96] La posterior retirada del Reino Unido del Golfo Pérsico y del Este de Asia sorprendió a Washington, donde se opuso firmemente porque las fuerzas británicas eran valoradas por su contribución. [101] En retrospectiva, las medidas de Wilson para reducir los compromisos globales de Gran Bretaña y corregir su balanza de pagos contrastaron con los esfuerzos excesivos de Johnson que aceleraron el relativo declive económico y militar de los EE. UU. [96]

Wilson y Nixon (enero de 1969 – junio de 1970)

Wilson visitando la Casa Blanca en enero de 1970

Cuando Richard Nixon asumió el cargo, muchas de las cuestiones de tensión entre las dos naciones ya se habían resuelto, lo que permitió que la Relación Especial floreciera. [102]

En un discurso pronunciado el 27 de enero de 1970 en una cena de estado de bienvenida al Primer Ministro en su visita a los EE. UU., Nixon dijo:

Señor Primer Ministro, es un placer para mí darle la bienvenida aquí hoy como a un viejo amigo; como un viejo amigo no sólo en el gobierno, sino como un viejo amigo personal. Al leer los antecedentes, noté que ésta es su 21.ª visita a los Estados Unidos y su séptima visita como Primer Ministro de su gobierno.

Y también he observado, al examinar la relación que hemos tenido desde que asumí el cargo hace un año, que nos reunimos dos veces en Londres, una en febrero y otra en agosto; que hemos tenido mucha correspondencia; hemos hablado varias veces por teléfono. Pero lo que es aún más importante es el contenido de esas conversaciones. El contenido no se refería a las diferencias entre su país y el nuestro. El contenido de esas conversaciones se refería a los grandes temas en los que tenemos un interés común y un propósito común: el desarrollo de la paz en el mundo, el progreso para su pueblo, para nuestro pueblo, para todos los pueblos. Así debe ser. Así es como ambos lo deseamos. Y es una indicación del camino hacia el futuro.

Winston Churchill dijo una vez, en una de sus visitas a este país, que si estamos juntos nada es imposible. Tal vez exagerara al decir que nada es imposible, pero hoy podemos decir que estamos juntos y, al estar juntos, es posible hacer muchas cosas. Y estoy seguro de que nuestras conversaciones harán que algunas de esas cosas sean posibles. [103]

Heath y Nixon (junio de 1970 – marzo de 1974)

El primer ministro Edward Heath y la reina Isabel II con el presidente Richard M. Nixon y la primera dama Pat Nixon durante la visita de los Nixon al Reino Unido en 1970

El primer ministro Edward Heath , europeísta , prefirió hablar de una « relación natural», basada en una cultura y un patrimonio compartidos», y destacó que la relación especial «no formaba parte de su propio vocabulario». [104]

La era Heath-Nixon estuvo dominada por la entrada del Reino Unido en la Comunidad Económica Europea (CEE) en 1973. Aunque el comunicado de 1971 de ambos líderes en Bermudas reiteró que la entrada servía a los intereses de la Alianza Atlántica , los observadores estadounidenses expresaron su preocupación por que la membresía del gobierno británico perjudicaría su papel como mediador honesto y que, debido al objetivo europeo de unión política, la Relación Especial sólo sobreviviría si incluía a toda la Comunidad. [105]

Los críticos acusaron al presidente Nixon de impedir la inclusión de la CEE en la Relación Especial con su política económica, [106] que desmanteló el sistema monetario internacional de posguerra y trató de forzar la apertura de los mercados europeos para las exportaciones estadounidenses. [107] Los detractores también calificaron la relación personal en la cima como "decididamente menos que especial"; se alegó que el Primer Ministro Edward Heath "apenas se atrevió a llamar por teléfono a Richard Nixon por miedo a ofender a sus nuevos socios del Mercado Común". [108]

La relación especial se "agrió" durante la guerra árabe-israelí de 1973, cuando Nixon no informó a Heath de que las fuerzas estadounidenses habían sido puestas en DEFCON 3 en un enfrentamiento mundial con la Unión Soviética , y el secretario de Estado de los EE. UU., Henry Kissinger, engañó al embajador británico sobre la alerta nuclear. [109] Heath, que se enteró de la alerta solo por informes de prensa horas después, confesó: "He encontrado una alarma considerable en cuanto al uso que los estadounidenses habrían podido hacer de sus fuerzas aquí sin consultarnos de ninguna manera ni considerar los intereses británicos". [110] El incidente marcó "un punto bajo" en la relación especial. [111]

Wilson y Nixon (marzo de 1974 – agosto de 1974)

El primer ministro Harold Wilson (izquierda), el presidente Richard Nixon (centro) y Henry Kissinger (derecha) en junio de 1974

Wilson y Nixon volvieron a ejercer simultáneamente como líderes de las dos naciones durante un período de seis meses que abarcó desde el inicio del segundo mandato de Wilson como primer ministro hasta la renuncia de Nixon . Wilson tenía a Nixon en alta estima. Después de que él mismo dejara el cargo, Wilson elogió a Nixon como el presidente "más capaz" de Estados Unidos. [112]

Wilson y Ford (agosto de 1974 – abril de 1976)

Wilson y Ford en el jardín de rosas de la Casa Blanca en enero de 1975

Gerald Ford se convirtió en presidente después de la renuncia de Nixon. En un brindis por Wilson en una cena de estado en enero de 1975, Ford comentó:

Es para mí un gran placer darle nuevamente la bienvenida a los Estados Unidos. Por supuesto, usted no es un extraño en esta ciudad ni en esta casa. Sus visitas aquí a lo largo de los años como aliado incondicional y amigo incondicional son una prueba constante de la excelencia de los vínculos entre nuestros países y nuestros pueblos.

Usted, señor Primer Ministro, es el líder honorable de uno de los aliados más fieles y de los amigos más antiguos de Estados Unidos. Cualquier estudioso de la historia y la cultura estadounidenses sabe lo importante que es nuestro legado común. De hecho, hemos seguido compartiendo una maravillosa historia común.

Los estadounidenses nunca podrán olvidar que las raíces mismas de nuestro sistema político democrático y de nuestros conceptos de libertad y gobierno se encuentran en Gran Bretaña.

A lo largo de los años, Gran Bretaña y Estados Unidos han permanecido unidos como amigos y aliados de confianza para defender la causa de la libertad en todo el mundo. Hoy, la Alianza del Atlántico Norte sigue siendo la piedra angular de nuestra defensa común. [113]

Callaghan y Ford (abril de 1976 – enero de 1977)

En abril de 1976, James Callaghan se convirtió en primer ministro después de que Wilson renunciara al cargo . Se consideraba que Ford y Callaghan tenían una relación cercana. [114]

El gobierno británico consideró el bicentenario de Estados Unidos en 1976 como una ocasión para celebrar la Relación Especial. Líderes políticos e invitados de ambos lados del Atlántico se reunieron en mayo en el Westminster Hall para conmemorar la Declaración de Independencia de Estados Unidos de 1776. El primer ministro James Callaghan presentó a una delegación del Congreso visitante una reproducción en relieve dorado de la Carta Magna , que simboliza el patrimonio común de las dos naciones. El historiador británico Esmond Wright señaló "una gran cantidad de identificación popular con la historia estadounidense". Un año de intercambios culturales y exposiciones culminó en julio con una visita de estado a Estados Unidos por parte de la Reina. [115]

Ford perdió las elecciones de 1976 , por lo que su presidencia terminó en enero de 1977. El presidente Ford nunca había logrado visitar el Reino Unido durante su presidencia. [116]

Callaghan y Carter (enero de 1977 – mayo de 1979)

El presidente Jimmy Carter (izquierda) y el primer ministro James Callaghan (derecha) en la Oficina Oval en marzo de 1978

Tras derrotar al entonces presidente Gerald Ford en las elecciones de 1976, Jimmy Carter juró como presidente de los Estados Unidos en enero de 1977. Las relaciones entre Callaghan y Carter eran cordiales, pero, como ambos gobiernos de centro-izquierda estaban preocupados por el malestar económico, los contactos diplomáticos se mantuvieron en un perfil bajo. Los funcionarios estadounidenses caracterizaron las relaciones en 1978 como "extremadamente buenas", y el principal desacuerdo fue sobre las rutas aéreas transatlánticas. [117]

Durante la visita de Callaghan a la Casa Blanca en marzo de 1977, Carter afirmó que había una «relación especial» y una «amistad inquebrantable» entre las dos naciones, declarando que «Gran Bretaña sigue siendo la madre patria de Estados Unidos». Durante esta reunión, Callaghan elogió a Carter por mejorar «el tono político del mundo». [118]

El malestar económico que Callaghan enfrentaba en su país se convirtió en el " Invierno del descontento ", que finalmente llevó a que el Partido Laborista de Callaghan perdiera las elecciones generales de mayo de 1979 , poniendo así fin a su mandato como primer ministro.

Thatcher y Carter (mayo de 1979 – enero de 1981)

Jimmy y Rosalynn Carter organizaron una cena de estado para Margaret Thatcher en la Casa Blanca durante su visita a los Estados Unidos en 1979.

La líder del Partido Conservador Margaret Thatcher se convirtió en primera ministra después de que su partido ganara las elecciones generales del Reino Unido de 1979. Las relaciones entre el presidente Carter y la primera ministra Margaret Thatcher durante el año y medio de superposición de su liderazgo a menudo se han visto como relativamente frías, especialmente cuando se contrasta con el parentesco que Thatcher desarrollaría posteriormente con el sucesor de Carter, Ronald Reagan . [119] [120] [121] Sin embargo, la relación de Carter con Thatcher nunca alcanzó los niveles de tensión que alcanzaría la relación de Reagan en medio de la Guerra de las Malvinas . [122]

Thatcher y Carter tenían claras diferencias en su ideología política. Ambos ocupaban extremos relativamente opuestos del espectro político. [119] Cuando ella se convirtió en primera ministra, Thatcher ya se había reunido con Carter en dos ocasiones anteriores. Ambos encuentros habían dejado inicialmente a Carter con una impresión negativa de ella. Sin embargo, su opinión sobre Thatcher se había vuelto más tranquila cuando fue elegida primera ministra. [119] A pesar de las tensiones entre los dos, el historiador Chris Collins (de la Fundación Margaret Thatcher) ha declarado: "Carter es alguien con quien trabajó duro para llevarse bien. Tuvo un éxito considerable en eso. Si Carter hubiera durado dos mandatos, tal vez estaríamos escribiendo sobre la sorprendente cantidad de puntos en común entre los dos". [119]

Carter felicitó a Thatcher en una llamada telefónica después de la victoria de su partido en las elecciones generales que la elevaron al cargo de primera ministra, afirmando que Estados Unidos "esperaba trabajar con usted de manera oficial". Sin embargo, sus felicitaciones fueron pronunciadas con un tono audiblemente poco entusiasta. [120] En su primera carta completa a Carter, Thatcher expresó su garantía de pleno apoyo en la ratificación del tratado de armas nucleares SALT II escribiendo: "Haremos todo lo posible para ayudarlo". [120]

Ambos líderes se enfrentaron mutuamente a grandes presiones durante la superposición de sus mandatos como líderes nacionales. Ambas naciones atravesaban una crisis económica debido a la recesión de principios de la década de 1980. Además, había agitación internacional en Europa del Este y Oriente Medio. [119] Entre las áreas de agitación se encontraban Afganistán (debido a la guerra soviética-afgana ) [119] e Irán (donde Carter se enfrentaba a una crisis de rehenes tras la revolución iraní ). [123]

Carter con Thatcher tomando té en la Casa Blanca durante su visita a Estados Unidos en 1979

Tanto Carter como Thatcher condenaron la invasión soviética de Afganistán . [119] Expresaron su preocupación mutua por el hecho de que otras naciones europeas estaban siendo demasiado blandas con los rusos. Carter esperaba poder persuadir a otras naciones europeas para que condenaran la invasión. [119] Sin embargo, con una situación económica particularmente tumultuosa en el país, y con la mayoría de los miembros de la OTAN reacios a cortar los lazos comerciales con la URSS, Thatcher sólo brindaría un apoyo muy débil a los esfuerzos de Carter por castigar a la URSS mediante sanciones económicas. [124]

Thatcher estaba preocupada por la ingenuidad de Carter en cuanto a las relaciones soviéticas. [120] Sin embargo, Thatcher jugó un papel (quizás fundamental) en el cumplimiento del deseo de Carter de que la ONU adoptara una resolución que exigiera la retirada de las tropas soviéticas de Afganistán. [122] Thatcher también alentó a los atletas británicos a participar en el boicot a los Juegos Olímpicos de Verano de 1980 en Moscú, que Carter inició en respuesta a la invasión. Sin embargo, Thatcher finalmente dio al Comité Olímpico del país y a los atletas individuales la opción de decidir si boicotearían o no los juegos. El Reino Unido terminó participando en los juegos de 1980, aunque con una delegación más pequeña debido a que los atletas individuales decidieron participar en el boicot de los juegos. [119] [122] [125]

En su correspondencia, Thatcher expresó su simpatía por los esfuerzos problemáticos de Carter para resolver la crisis de los rehenes en Irán. [119] Sin embargo, rechazó de plano su pedido de que redujera la presencia de la embajada británica en Irán . [120] Thatcher elogió a Carter por su manejo de la economía estadounidense, enviándole una carta en la que respaldaba sus medidas para manejar la inflación económica y reducir el consumo de gas durante la crisis energética de 1979 como "dolorosas pero necesarias". [119]

En octubre de 1979, Thatcher escribió a Carter: "Comparto su preocupación por las intenciones de Cuba y la Unión Soviética en el Caribe. Este peligro existe más ampliamente en el mundo en desarrollo. Es esencial que la Unión Soviética reconozca su determinación en este asunto. […] Por lo tanto, me siento especialmente alentada por su declaración de que está acelerando los esfuerzos para aumentar la capacidad de los Estados Unidos para utilizar sus fuerzas militares en todo el mundo". [120]

También en octubre de 1979 hubo una disputa sobre la provisión de fondos por parte del gobierno de Thatcher para los servicios externos de la BBC . En su desesperación, la BBC se puso en contacto con el embajador de los Estados Unidos , Kingman Brewster Jr., para solicitar que el gobierno de los Estados Unidos los respaldara en su lucha contra los recortes de gastos. El asesor de seguridad nacional Zbigniew Brzezinski discutió esta solicitud con el Departamento de Estado e incluso redactó una carta para que Carter la enviara a Thatcher. Sin embargo, Brzezinski finalmente decidió no aconsejar a Carter que se involucrara en los esfuerzos de la BBC para presionar contra los recortes presupuestarios. [120] Durante su visita de diciembre de 1979 a los Estados Unidos, Thatcher reprendió a Carter por no permitir la venta de arsenal para equipar a la Real Policía del Ulster . [120] Durante esta visita, pronunció un discurso en el que era evidente una falta de calidez hacia Carter. [121] Aunque Thatcher probablemente favoreció a su homólogo ideológico Ronald Reagan para ganar las elecciones de 1980 (en las que derrotó a Carter), fue cautelosa y no expresó tal preferencia, ni siquiera en privado. [119]

Thatcher y Reagan (enero de 1981 – enero de 1989)

La primera ministra Margaret Thatcher (izquierda) y el presidente Ronald Reagan (derecha) en la Sala Azul , febrero de 1981
El presidente Ronald Reagan (izquierda) y la primera ministra Margaret Thatcher (derecha) en la Oficina Oval , noviembre de 1988

La amistad personal entre el presidente Ronald Reagan y la primera ministra Margaret Thatcher los unió como "almas gemelas ideológicas". Compartían un compromiso con la filosofía del libre mercado , los impuestos bajos, el gobierno limitado y una defensa fuerte; rechazaban la distensión y estaban decididos a ganar la Guerra Fría con la Unión Soviética. Sin embargo, tenían desacuerdos sobre políticas sociales internas como la epidemia del SIDA y el aborto. [126] [127] Thatcher resumió su comprensión de la Relación Especial en su primera reunión con Reagan como presidente en 1981: "Sus problemas serán nuestros problemas y cuando busque amigos, estaremos allí". [128]

Al celebrar el 200 aniversario de las relaciones diplomáticas en 1985, Thatcher dijo con entusiasmo:

Existe una unión de ideas y de propósitos entre nuestros pueblos que es notable y que hace que nuestra relación sea verdaderamente notable. Es especial. Simplemente lo es, y eso es todo. [129]

Reagan, a su vez, reconoció:

Los Estados Unidos y el Reino Unido están unidos por lazos inseparables de historia antigua y amistad actual... Ha habido algo muy especial en las amistades entre los líderes de nuestros dos países. Y permítame decirle a mi amigo el Primer Ministro que me gustaría agregar dos nombres más a esta lista de afectos: Thatcher y Reagan. [130]

En 1982, Thatcher y Reagan llegaron a un acuerdo para reemplazar la flota británica Polaris con una fuerza equipada con misiles Trident suministrados por Estados Unidos . La confianza entre los dos principales pareció tensarse momentáneamente por el tardío apoyo de Reagan en la Guerra de las Malvinas , pero esto fue más que contrarrestado por el anglófilo Secretario de Defensa estadounidense, Caspar Weinberger , quien brindó un fuerte apoyo en inteligencia y municiones. [131] Desde entonces se ha revelado que mientras afirmaba públicamente su neutralidad en la disputa entre Argentina y Gran Bretaña sobre las Islas Malvinas , Reagan había aprobado un plan de alto secreto para prestar un portaaviones estadounidense a los británicos en caso de que las fuerzas argentinas lograran hundir uno de los portaaviones británicos, y le había dicho a Weinberger que: "Le diera a Maggie todo lo que necesita para seguir adelante". [132]

A July 2012 article by USNI News of the United States Naval Institute revealed that the Reagan Administration offered the use of the USS Iwo Jima as a replacement in case either of the two British carriers, Hermes and Invincible, had been damaged or destroyed during the 1982 Falklands War. This top-secret contingency plan was revealed to the staff of the Naval Institute by John Lehman, the U.S. Secretary of the Navy at the time of the Falklands War, from a speech provided to the Naval Institute that Lehman made in Portsmouth, UK on 26 June 2012. Lehman stated that the loan of Iwo Jima was made in response to a request from the Royal Navy, and it had the endorsement of U.S. President Ronald Reagan and U.S. Secretary of Defense Caspar Weinberger. The actual planning for the loan of Iwo Jima was done by the staff of the U.S. Second Fleet under the direction of Vice Admiral James Lyons, who confirmed Lehman's revelations with the Naval Institute staff. Contingency planning envisioned American military contractors, likely retired sailors with knowledge of Iwo Jima's systems, assisting the British in manning the U.S. helicopter carrier during the loan-out. Naval analyst Eric Wertheim compared this arrangement to the Flying Tigers. Significantly, except for U.S. Secretary of State Alexander Haig, the U.S. Department of State was not included in the loan-out negotiations.[133][134]

An American F-111F takes off from RAF Lakenheath to conduct an airstrike in Libya on 15 April 1986.

In 1986 Washington asked permission to use British airbases in order to bomb Libya in retaliation for the 1986 West Berlin discotheque bombing by Libyan terrorists that killed two U.S. servicemen. The British cabinet was opposed and Thatcher herself was worried it would lead to widespread attacks on British interests in the Middle East. That did not happen, and instead Libyan terrorism fell off sharply. Furthermore, although British public opinion was highly negative, Britain won widespread praise in the United States at a time when Spain and France had vetoed American requests to fly over their territories.[135][136]

A more serious disagreement came in 1983 when Washington did not consult with London on the invasion of Grenada.[137] Grenada is part of the Commonwealth of Nations and, following the invasion, it requested help from other Commonwealth members. The intervention was opposed by Commonwealth members including the United Kingdom, Trinidad and Tobago, and Canada, among others.[138]: 50  British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher, a close ally of Reagan on other matters, personally opposed the U.S. invasion. Reagan told her it might happen; she did not know for sure it was coming until three hours before. At 12:30 on the morning of the invasion, Thatcher sent a message to Reagan:

This action will be seen as intervention by a Western country in the internal affairs of a small independent nation, however unattractive its regime. I ask you to consider this in the context of our wider East/West relations and of the fact that we will be having in the next few days to present to our Parliament and people the siting of Cruise missiles in this country. I must ask you to think most carefully about these points. I cannot conceal that I am deeply disturbed by your latest communication. You asked for my advice. I have set it out and hope that even at this late stage you will take it into account before events are irrevocable.[139][140] (The full text remains classified.)

Reagan told Thatcher before anyone else that the invasion would begin in a few hours, but ignored her complaints. She publicly supported the U.S. action. Reagan phoned to apologize for the miscommunication, and the long-term friendly relationship endured.[141][142]

In 1986, the British defence secretary Michael Heseltine, a prominent critic of the Special Relationship and a supporter of European integration, resigned over his concern that a takeover of Britain's last helicopter manufacturer by a US firm would harm the British defence industry.[143] Thatcher herself also saw a potential risk to Britain's deterrent and security posed by the Strategic Defense Initiative[144] She was alarmed at Reagan's proposal at the Reykjavík Summit to eliminate nuclear weapons, but was relieved when the proposal failed.[145]

All in all, Britain's needs figured more prominently in American thinking strategy than anyone else.[146] Peter Hennessy, a leading historian, singles out the personal dynamic of "Ron" and "Margaret" in this success:

At crucial moments in the late 1980s, her influence was considerable in shifting perceptions in President Reagan's Washington about the credibility of Mr Gorbachev when he repeatedly asserted his intention to end the Cold War. That mercurial, much-discussed phenomenon, 'the special relationship,' enjoyed an extraordinary revival during the 1980s, with 'slips' like the US invasion of Grenada in 1983 apart, the Thatcher-Reagan partnership outstripping all but the prototype Roosevelt-Churchill duo in its warmth and importance. ('Isn't she marvellous'?' he would purr to his aides even while she berated him down the 'hot line.')[147]

Thatcher and George H. W. Bush (January 1989 – November 1990)

Margaret Thatcher and Vice President George H. W. Bush in Washington, D.C., in July 1987

In his personal diary, George H. W. Bush wrote that his first impression of Thatcher was she was principled but very difficult. Bush also wrote that Thatcher, "talks all the time when you're in a conversation. It's a one-way street."[148]

Despite having developed a warm relation with Reagan, whom Bush had served under as vice president, Thatcher never developed a similar sense of camaraderie with Bush. At the time that Bush took office in January 1989, having won the previous November's presidential election, Thatcher was politically under siege from both her political opposition and forces within her own party.[149]

Bush was anxious to manage the collapse of communist regimes in Eastern Europe in a manner that would produce order and stability. Bush, therefore, used a 1989 trip to Brussels to demonstrate the heightened attention that his administration planned to allocate towards US–German relations. Thus, rather than giving Thatcher the precedence which Prime Ministers of the United Kingdom were accustomed to receiving from US Presidents, he met with the president of the European Commission first, leaving Thatcher, "cooling her heels". This irritated Thatcher.[149]

Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher and President George H. W. Bush in London, June 1989

In 1989, after Bush proposed a reduction in US troops stationed in Europe, Thatcher lectured Bush on the importance of freedom. Bush came out of this encounter asking, "Why does she have any doubt that we feel this way on this issue?"[148]

In the midst of the invasion of Kuwait, Thatcher advised Bush that, "this is no time to go wobbly."[148][149][150][151] Thatcher lost her premiership in November 1990. However, to Bush's displeasure, she continued attempting to involve herself in diplomacy between the West and the Soviet Union. Bush took particular offence to a speech Thatcher gave after leaving office in which she said that she and Ronald Reagan were responsible for ending the Cold War. Thatcher gave this speech, which snubbed the contributions that others had made, before an audience that included a number of individuals who had contributed to the ending the Cold War, such as Lech Wałęsa and Václav Havel. In reaction to this speech, Helmut Kohl sent Bush a note proclaiming that Thatcher was crazy.[148]

Major and George H. W. Bush (November 1990 – January 1993)

Prime Minister John Major (left) and President George H. W. Bush (right) at Camp David in June 1992

As had started becoming apparent in Thatcher's last few years of premiership, the Special Relationship had begun to wane for a time with the passing of the Cold War, despite intensive co-operation in the Gulf War. Thus, while it remained the case that, on nearly all issues, the United States and United Kingdom remained on the same side, to a degree greater than with their other close allies, it was also the case that, with the absence of the Soviet Union as a powerful shared threat, narrower disputes were able to arise with greater tensions than they previously would have merited.[152][153]

Major and Clinton (January 1993 – May 1997)

Democratic President Bill Clinton intended to maintain the Special Relationship. But he and Major did not prove compatible.[154]

The nuclear alliance was weakened when Clinton extended a moratorium on tests in the Nevada desert in 1993, and pressed Major to agree to the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty.[155] The freeze was described by a British defence minister as "unfortunate and misguided", as it inhibited validation of the "safety, reliability and effectiveness" of fail-safe mechanisms on upgraded warheads for the British Trident II D5 missiles, and potentially the development of a new deterrent for the 21st century, leading Major to consider a return to Pacific Ocean testing.[156] The Ministry of Defence turned to computer simulation.[157]

President Bill Clinton (left) and Prime Minister John Major (right) hold a working breakfast at the White House in 1994.

A genuine crisis in transatlantic relations blew up over Bosnia.[158] London and Paris resisted relaxation of the UN arms embargo,[159] and discouraged U.S. escalation,[160] arguing that arming the Muslims or bombing the Serbs could worsen the bloodshed and endanger their peacekeepers on the ground.[161] US Secretary of State Warren Christopher's campaign to lift the embargo was rebuffed by Major and President Mitterrand in May 1993.[159] After the so-called 'Copenhagen ambush' in June 1993, where Clinton "ganged up" with Chancellor Kohl to rally the European Community against the peacekeeping states, Major was said[by whom?] to be contemplating the death of the Special Relationship.[citation needed] The following month the United States voted at the UN with non-aligned countries against Britain and France over lifting the embargo.[162]

By October 1993, Warren Christopher was bristling that Washington policy makers had been too "Eurocentric", and declared that Western Europe was "no longer the dominant area of the world".[159] The U.S. ambassador to London, Raymond G.H. Seitz, demurred, insisting it was far too early to put a "tombstone" over the Special Relationship.[161] A senior U.S. State Department official described Bosnia in the spring of 1995 as the worst crisis with the British and French since Suez.[163] By the summer, U.S. officials were doubting whether NATO had a future.[163]

The nadir had now been reached, and, along with NATO enlargement and the Croatian offensive in 1995 that opened the way for NATO bombing, the strengthening Clinton–Major relationship was later credited as one of three developments that saved the Western alliance.[163] The president later acknowledged,

John Major carried a lot of water for me and for the alliance over Bosnia. I know he was under a lot of political pressure at home, but he never wavered. He was a truly decent guy who never let me down. We worked really well together, and I got to like him a lot.[163]

A rift opened in a further area. In February 1994, Major refused to answer Clinton's telephone calls for days over his decision to grant Sinn Féin leader Gerry Adams a visa to visit the United States to agitate.[164] Adams was listed as a terrorist by London.[165] The U.S. State Department, the CIA, the U.S. Justice Department and the FBI all opposed the move on the grounds that it made the United States look "soft on terrorism" and "could do irreparable damage to the special relationship".[166] Under pressure from Congress, the president hoped the visit would encourage the IRA to renounce violence.[167] While Adams offered nothing new, and violence escalated within weeks,[168] the president later claimed vindication after the IRA ceasefire of August 1994.[169] To the disappointment of the prime minister, Clinton lifted the ban on official contacts and received Adams at the White House on St. Patrick's Day 1995, despite the fact the paramilitaries had not agreed to disarm.[165] The rows over Northern Ireland and the Adams affair reportedly "provoked incandescent Clintonian rages".[163]

In November 1995, Clinton became only the second US president ever to address both Houses of Parliament,[116] but, by the end of Major's premiership, disenchantment with the Special Relationship had deepened to the point where the incoming British ambassador Christopher Meyer banned the "hackneyed phrase" from the embassy.[170][171]

Blair and Clinton (May 1997 – January 2001)

President Bill Clinton (left) and Prime Minister Tony Blair (right) at the Conference on Progressive Governance, Florence, in November 1999

The election of British prime minister Tony Blair in 1997 brought an opportunity to revive what Clinton called the two nations' "unique partnership". At his first meeting with his new partner, the president said: "Over the last fifty years our unbreakable alliance has helped to bring unparalleled peace and prosperity and security. It's an alliance based on shared values and common aspirations."[172]

The personal relationship between the two leaders was seen as especially close because the leaders were considered to be "kindred spirits" in their domestic agendas.[172] Both Blair and Clinton had repositioned their political parties to embrace centrism, pushing their parties away from the left, a tactic each had adopted in response to successive national election losses that their parties had incurred prior their leadership.[173] New Labour's third Way, a moderate social-democratic position, was partly influenced by United States New Democratic thinking that Clinton had helped to usher in.[174]

Both Blair and Clinton were, each, the first of their generation (baby boomers) to lead their respective nation.[173] Cooperation in defence and communications still had the potential to embarrass Blair, however, as he strove to balance it with his own leadership role in the European Union (EU).[175] Enforcement of Iraqi no-fly zones[176] and US bombing raids on Iraq dismayed EU partners.[177] As the leading international proponent of humanitarian intervention, the "hawkish" Blair "bullied" Clinton to back diplomacy with force in Kosovo in 1999, pushing for deployment of ground troops to persuade the president "to do whatever was necessary" to win.[178][179]

Clinton played a key role in the peace talks that led to the Good Friday Agreement between the governments of the United Kingdom and Ireland in 1998.[180] The partnership between Blair and Clinton would later be the focus of the 2010 film The Special Relationship.

Blair and George W. Bush (January 2001 – June 2007)

Prime Minister Tony Blair (left) and President George W. Bush (right) in the East Room of the White House in March 2004, after a press conference.

The personal diplomacy of Blair and Clinton's successor, US president George W. Bush in 2001, further served to highlight the Special Relationship. Despite their political differences on non-strategic matters, their shared beliefs and responses to the international situation formed a commonality of purpose following the September 11 attacks in New York and Washington, D.C. Blair, like Bush, was convinced of the importance of moving against the perceived threat to world peace and international order, famously pledging to stand "shoulder to shoulder" with Bush:

This is not a battle between the United States of America and terrorism, but between the free and democratic world and terrorism. We therefore here in Britain stand shoulder to shoulder with our American friends in this hour of tragedy, and we, like them, will not rest until this evil is driven from our world.[181]

Blair flew to Washington immediately after 9/11 to affirm British solidarity with the United States. In a speech to the United States Congress, nine days after the attacks, Bush declared "America has no truer friend than Great Britain."[182] Blair, one of the few world leaders to attend a presidential speech to Congress as a special guest of the First Lady, received two standing ovations from members of Congress. Blair's presence at the presidential speech remains the only time in U.S. political history that a foreign leader was in attendance at an emergency joint session of the U.S. Congress, a testimony to the strength of the U.S.–U.K. alliance under the two leaders. Following that speech, Blair embarked on two months of diplomacy, rallying international support for military action. The BBC calculated that, in total, the prime minister held 54 meetings with world leaders and travelled more than 40,000 miles (64,000 km).[citation needed]

Blair came to be considered Bush's strongest foreign ally in regards to the Iraq War.[173] Blair's leadership role in the Iraq War helped him to sustain a strong relationship with Bush through to the end of his time as prime minister, but it was unpopular within his own party and lowered his public approval ratings. Some of the British press called Blair "Bush's poodle".[183] It also alienated some of his European partners, including the leaders of France and Germany. Russian popular artist Mikhail Nikolayevich Zadornov mused that "the position adopted by Britain towards America in the context of the Iraq War would be officially introduced into Kama Sutra." Blair felt he could defend his close personal relationship with Bush by claiming it had brought progress in the Middle East peace process, aid for Africa and climate-change diplomacy.[184] However, it was not with Bush but with California Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger that Blair ultimately succeeded in setting up a carbon-trading market, "creating a model other states will follow".[43][185]

The 2006 Lebanon War also exposed some minor differences in attitudes over the Middle East. The strong support offered by Blair and the Bush administration to Israel was not wholeheartedly shared by the British cabinet or the British public. On 27 July, Foreign Secretary Margaret Beckett criticised the United States for "ignoring procedure" when using Prestwick Airport as a stop-off point for delivering laser-guided bombs to Israel.[186]

Brown and George W. Bush (June 2007 – January 2009)

Prime Minister Gordon Brown (left) and President George W. Bush (right) at Camp David in July 2007

Although British Prime Minister Gordon Brown stated his support for the United States on assuming office in 2007,[187] he appointed ministers to the Foreign Office who had been critical of aspects of the relationship or of recent US policy.[188][189] A Whitehall source said: "It will be more businesslike now, with less emphasis on the meeting of personal visions you had with Bush and Blair."[190] British policy was that the relationship with the United States remained the United Kingdom's "most important bilateral relationship".[191]

Brown and Obama (January 2009 – May 2010)

Prior to his election as US president in 2008, Barack Obama, suggesting that Blair and Britain had been let down by the Bush administration, declared: "We have a chance to recalibrate the relationship and for the United Kingdom to work with America as a full partner."[192]

Prime Minister Gordon Brown (left) and President Barack Obama (right) in the Oval Office in March 2009

On meeting Brown as president for the first time in March 2009, Obama reaffirmed that "Great Britain is one of our closest and strongest allies and there is a link and bond there that will not break... This notion that somehow there is any lessening of that special relationship is misguided... The relationship is not only special and strong but will only get stronger as time goes on."[193] Commentators, however, noted that the recurring use of "special partnership" by White House Press Secretary Robert Gibbs could be signaling an effort to recast terms.[194]

The Special Relationship was also reported to be "strained" after a senior U.S. State Department official criticised a British decision to talk to the political wing of Hezbollah, complaining that the United States had not been properly informed.[195][196] The protest came after the Obama administration had said it was prepared to talk to Hamas[197] and at the same time as it was making overtures to Syria and Iran.[198] A senior Foreign Office official responded: "This should not have come as a shock to any official who might have been in the previous administration and is now in the current one."[199]

In June 2009 the special relationship was reported to have "taken another hit"[200] after the British government was said to be "angry"[201][202] over the failure of the US to seek its approval before negotiating with Bermuda over the resettlement to the British overseas territory[203] of four ex-Guantanamo Bay inmates wanted by the People's Republic of China.[204] A Foreign Office spokesman said: 'It's something that we should have been consulted about.'[205] Asked whether the men might be sent back to Cuba, he replied: "We are looking into all possible next steps."[201] The move prompted an urgent security assessment by the British government.[206] Shadow Foreign Secretary William Hague demanded an explanation from the incumbent, David Miliband,[206] as comparisons were drawn with his previous embarrassment over the US use of Diego Garcia for extraordinary rendition without British knowledge,[207] with one commentator describing the affair as "a wake-up call" and "the latest example of American governments ignoring Britain when it comes to US interests in British territories abroad".[208]

In August 2009, the Special Relationship was again reported to have "taken another blow" with the release on compassionate grounds of Abdelbaset al-Megrahi, the man convicted of the 1988 Lockerbie Bombing. U.S. Secretary of State Hillary Clinton said "it was absolutely wrong to release Abdelbaset al-Megrahi", adding "We are still encouraging the Scottish authorities not to do so and hope they will not". Obama also commented that the release of al-Megrahi was a "mistake" and "highly objectionable".[209]

In March 2010, Hillary Clinton's support for Argentina's call for negotiations over the Falkland Islands triggered a series of diplomatic protests from Britain[210] and renewed public scepticism about the value of the Special Relationship.[211][212] The British government rejected Clinton's offer of mediation after renewed tensions with Argentina were triggered by a British decision to drill for oil near the Falkland Islands.[213] The British government's long-standing position was that the Falklands were British territory, with all that this implied regarding the legitimacy of British commercial activities within its boundaries. British officials were therefore irritated by the implication that sovereignty was negotiable.[214][215]

Later that month, the Foreign Affairs Select Committee of the House of Commons suggested that the British government should be "less deferential" towards the United States and focus relations more on British interests.[216][217] According to Committee Chair Mike Gapes, "The UK and US have a close and valuable relationship not only in terms of intelligence and security but also in terms of our profound and historic cultural and trading links and commitment to freedom, democracy and the rule of law. But the use of the phrase 'the special relationship' in its historical sense, to describe the totality of the ever-evolving UK–US relationship, is potentially misleading, and we recommend that its use should be avoided."[217] In April 2010, the Church of England added its voice to the call for a more balanced relationship between Britain and the United States.[218]

Cameron and Obama (May 2010 – July 2016)

Prime Minister David Cameron (left) meets US President Barack Obama (right) at the G8 Summit, June 2013.

On David Cameron's being appointed as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom after coalition talks between his Conservatives and the Liberal Democrats concluded on 11 May 2010, President Obama was the first foreign leader to offer his congratulations. Following the conversation Obama said:

As I told the prime minister, the United States has no closer friend and ally than the United Kingdom, and I reiterated my deep and personal commitment to the special relationship between our two countries – a bond that has endured for generations and across party lines.[219]

Foreign Secretary William Hague responded to the President's overture by making Washington his first port of call, commenting: "We're very happy to accept that description and to agree with that description. The United States is without doubt the most important ally of the United Kingdom." Meeting Hillary Clinton, Hague hailed the Special Relationship as "an unbreakable alliance", and added: "It's not a backward-looking or nostalgic relationship. It is one looking to the future from combating violent extremism to addressing poverty and conflict around the world." Both governments confirmed their joint commitment to the war in Afghanistan and their opposition to Iran's nuclear programme.[220]

The Deepwater Horizon oil spill in 2010 sparked a media firestorm against BP in the United States. The Christian Science Monitor observed that a "rhetorical prickliness" had come about from escalating Obama administration criticism of BP—straining the Special Relationship—particularly the repeated use of the term "British Petroleum" even though the business no longer uses that name.[221] Cameron stated that he did not want to make the president's toughness on BP a U.S.–U.K. issue, and noted that the company was balanced in terms of the number of its American and British shareholders.[222] The validity of the Special Relationship was put in question as a result of the "aggressive rhetoric".[223]

On 20 July, Cameron met with Obama during his first visit to the United States as prime minister. The two expressed unity in a wide range of issues, including the war in Afghanistan. During the meeting, Obama stated, "We can never say it enough. The United States and the United Kingdom enjoy a truly special relationship," then going on to say, "We celebrate a common heritage. We cherish common values. ... (And) above all, our alliance thrives because it advances our common interests."[224] Cameron said, "from the times I've met Barack Obama before, we do have very, very close – allegiances and very close positions on all the key issues, whether that is Afghanistan or Middle East peace process or Iran. Our interests are aligned and we've got to make this partnership work."[222] During the meeting, both Cameron and Obama criticized the decision of the Scottish Government to release Abdelbaset al-Megrahi, who was convicted of participating in the Lockerbie bombing, from prison.[224]

In May, Obama became the fourth U.S. president to make a state visit to the U.K. and the third U.S. president (after Ronald Reagan and Bill Clinton) to address both Houses of Parliament.[225][226][227][228] (George W. Bush was invited to address Parliament in 2003, but declined.)[229] He was the first US President to give a rare Westminster Hall address, in which he stressed themes of shared heritage and values, as well as multilateralism.[230][231]

In 2013, ahead of a UK Parliament vote against participating in U.S. military action in Syria, Secretary of State John Kerry remarked "The relationship between the US and UK has often been described as special or essential and it has been described thus simply because it is. Foreign Secretary William Hague replied: "So the United Kingdom will continue to work closely with the United States, taking a highly active role in addressing the Syria crisis and working with our closest ally over the coming weeks and months."[232] In July 2015, after negotiations, the United Kingdom and the United States, along with China, France, the European Union, Germany, Russia agreed to the Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action with Iran.

In 2015, Cameron stated that Obama calls him "bro" and described the "special relationship" between Washington and Westminster as "stronger than it has ever been".[233] In March 2016, Obama criticised the British PM for becoming "distracted" over the intervention in Libya, a criticism that was also aimed at the French President.[234] A National Security Council spokesman sent an unsolicited email to the BBC limiting the damage done by stating that "Prime Minister David Cameron has been as close a partner as the president has had."[235]

May and Obama (July 2016 – January 2017)

Prime Minister Theresa May (left) and President Barack Obama (right) deliver a joint press statement September 2016 in Hangzhou, China.

The short period of relations between post-Brexit referendum newly appointed Theresa May and Obama administration was met with diplomatic tension over John Kerry's criticism of Israel in a speech.[236] Obama maintained his stance that the UK would be a low priority for US trade talks post-Brexit, and that the UK would be at "the back of the queue".[237]

May chose Boris Johnson to serve as her Foreign Secretary. Johnson had written an op-ed which made mention of Obama's Kenyan heritage in a manner which critics accused of being racist. He had also previously written an op-ed about Hillary Clinton which made derisive statements that had been criticized as sexist.[238] By the time May appointed Johnson, Clinton was the Democratic Party's presumptive nominee in the election to elect Obama's successor, and thus had a significant chance of being the next US president. A senior official in the US government suggested that Johnson's appointment would push the US further towards ties with Germany at the expense of the Special Relationship with the UK.[239]

Ultimately, before he left office, Obama stated that German Chancellor Angela Merkel had been his "closest international partner" throughout his tenure as president.[240] While Obama might have had a distant relationship with Prime Minister May, he reportedly maintained a strong cordial relationship with members of the British royal family.[241]

May and Trump (January 2017 – July 2019)

UK Prime Minister Theresa May and US President Donald Trump in the Oval Office, January 2017

Following the election of Donald Trump, the British government sought to establish a close alliance with the Trump administration. May's efforts to closely associate herself with Trump proved to be strongly controversial in the United Kingdom.[4] May was the first world leader to meet with Trump following his inauguration.[242][4] May's supporters described her visit as a bid to reaffirm the historical "special relationship" between the two countries.[4] The meeting took place at the White House and lasted about an hour.[242]

May was criticized in the UK[243][244][245][246] by members of all major parties, including her own, for refusing to condemn Trump's "Muslim ban" executive order.[243][247][245] as well as for her invitation to Trump, extended in 2017, for a state visit with Queen Elizabeth II.[248][249] An invitation for a state visit had not traditionally been extended so early in a presidency, however May did so in hopes of fostering a stronger trade relationship with the United States before the Brexit deadline.[250] More than 1.8 million signed an official parliamentary e-petition which said that "Donald Trump's well documented misogyny and vulgarity disqualifies him from being received by Her Majesty the Queen or the Prince of Wales,"[251] and Jeremy Corbyn, the Leader of the Opposition Labour Party, said in Prime Minister's Questions that Trump should not be welcomed to Britain "while he abuses our shared values with his shameful Muslim ban and attacks on refugees' and women's rights"[252] and said that Trump should be banned from the UK until his travel ban is lifted.[253][249] Baroness Warsi, former chair of the Conservatives, accused May of "bowing down" to Trump, who she described as "a man who has no respect for women, disdain for minorities, little value for LGBT communities, no compassion clearly for the vulnerable and whose policies are rooted in divisive rhetoric."[254][255] London Mayor Sadiq Khan and the Conservative leader in Scotland, Ruth Davidson, also called for the visit to be cancelled.[256][254] Trump's invitation was later downgraded to a "working visit" rather than a "state visit";[257] the visit occurred in July 2018 and included a meeting with the queen, but not the ceremonies and events of a full state visit.[248]

Despite May's efforts to establish a beneficial working relationship with Trump, their relationship had been described as "dysfunctional".[258] It had been reported that, in their phone calls, Trump had made a habit of interrupting May.[258]

In November 2017, Trump retweeted an anti-Muslim post from the far-right group Britain First. The move was condemned across the British political spectrum, and May said through a spokesperson that it was "wrong of the president to have done this."[259] In response, Trump tweeted, "Don't focus on me, focus on the destructive Radical Islamic Terrorism that is taking place within the United Kingdom, We are doing just fine!"[260] The dispute between Trump and May weakened the perception of a strong "special relationship" under May's leadership and undermined her efforts to craft an image of a close relationship with the United States in order to ease the passage of Brexit. Some viewed Trump's tweets as causing significant harm to the Special Relationship.[261][262][263][264][265][266][267][268][269]

In February 2018, Trump—in an attempt to rebuke a push by some in the U.S. Democratic Party for universal healthcare—tweeted that, "thousands of people are marching in the UK because their U system is going broke and not working".[270] Trump's criticism of the UK's National Health Service (NHS) was factually inaccurate; the protests in the UK that Trump referenced actually pushed for an improvement in NHS services and increases in funding, and were not in opposition to the NHS or to Britain's universal healthcare system.[270][271] The tweet furthered strained the Trump-May relationship, and May responded by declaring her pride in the UK's health system.[272][273]

In January 2018, in a televised interview with Piers Morgan, Trump criticized May's approach to Brexit negotiations, furthering straining his relationship with her.[273] At the 2018 G7 summit, Trump repeatedly made apparent slights towards May. Despite this, May stated that her relationship with Trump remained strong.[274] At the 2018 Brussels summit, May sought to curry favor with Trump by supporting his complaints that other NATO members had failed to meet certain levels of defence funding.[275]

Following the Brussels summit, Trump made his first presidential visit to the United Kingdom. His visit came at period in the United Kingdom's political climate which had been preceded by significant tumult for May. She was receiving significant resistance to her plans for a "soft Brexit", which had resulted several major resignations amongst her cabinet ministers.[276][277][278] During his visit, in an interview with The Sun, Trump, again, spoke critically of May's handling of Brexit negotiations. He stated that May's proposal would likely kill the prospects of a US-UK trade agreement.[278][277] These comments inflicted further damage on an already-embattled May.[277] Trump also praised Boris Johnson (a political rival of May's who had recently resigned from her cabinet), going as far to suggest that Johnson would make a good prime minister.[278][277] Vanity Fair considered that the "special relationship" had "devolved into a greasy dumpster fire" under May and Trump.[279]

Relations between the United Kingdom and the Trump administration were further strained in 2019, after a number of confidential diplomatic cables authored by the British Ambassador to the United States, Kim Darroch, were leaked to the Mail on Sunday.[280][281][282] In the cables to the Foreign Office, which dated from 2017 to 2019, Darroch reported that the Trump administration as "uniquely dysfunctional" and "inept" and that Trump "radiates insecurity"; the cables advised U.S. officials that dealing with Trump required them "you need to make your points simple, even blunt."[280][281] Darroch also wrote that Trump's position toward Iran frequently changed, likely to political considerations.[280] After the memos leaked, Trump said that Darroch "has not served the UK well" and criticizing May. May defended Darroch, stating that "Good government depends on public servants being able to give full and frank advice"; other British politicians, such as Nigel Farage and Liam Fox, criticized Darroch.[283] Following Boris Johnson's refusal to defend Darroch in a debate for the 2019 Conservative Party leadership election and Trump's statement that he would refuse to deal with Darroch, the ambassador resigned.[282] Both May and Corbyn praised Darroch's service in the House of Commons and deplored that he had to resign under pressure from the United States.[284]

Johnson and Trump (July 2019 – January 2021)

UK Prime Minister Boris Johnson and US President Donald Trump in New York City, September 2019

After May resigned, Boris Johnson won the leadership contest with Trump's endorsement,[285] and became prime minister. Trump praised Johnson as prime minister and celebrated comparisons that had been made between Johnson and himself, declaring, "Good man. He's tough and he's smart. They're saying 'Britain Trump.' They call him 'Britain Trump', and there's people saying that's a good thing."[286] Johnson, had, in fact, been called the "British Trump" by some analysts and critics.[287] However, Boris Johnson greatly differs in social policy, and is more socially liberal. Before and after becoming prime minister, Johnson spoke complimentarily of Trump.[288]

At the start of November, as the UK prepared for the start of its 2019 general election campaign, Trump threw his support behind Johnson and the Conservative Party, telling London radio station LBC that a government led by opposition leader Jeremy Corbyn and his Labour Party would be "so bad for your country ... he'd take you into such bad places."[289] In the same interview, Trump praised Johnson as, "a fantastic man", and, "the exact right guy for the times".[289] During the election campaign, Johnson had been seen as being keen on distancing himself from Trump, who was described as "deeply unpopular in the UK", with polls conducted during his presidency showing that citizens of the United Kingdom have low confidence in and approval of Trump.[290][291][292][293]

Trump and Johnson, both regarded to be populists, were seen as having an overall warm relationship with one another.[294] Analysts saw the two leaders as having some stylistic similarities.[295] Johnson was seen as making a deliberate effort to ingratiate himself to Trump.[295] Politico would later report, quoting a former White House official, that, before becoming prime minister, Johnson had actively worked to win Trump's favor while serving as foreign minister by winning over some of the president's top aides, particularly Stephen Miller. The former White House official alleged that Johnson even held a surreptitious private meetings with Miller during a trip to Washington, D.C.[296] Politico also reported that Johnson and Trump would come to be on such close terms that Trump supplied Johnson with his personal cell phone number.[296] Johnson and Trump shared a mutual desire to see the United Kingdom undertake a hasty Brexit. Trump had previously been critical of May's approach to Brexit, viewing it as overly prolonged and cautious.[295]

At the NATO summit in London in December 2019, Johnson was caught on-camera appearing to participate in mocking Trump in a conversation with French President Emmanuel Macron, Dutch Prime Minister Mark Rutte, Canadian prime minister Justin Trudeau and Anne, Princess Royal.[297] After the video was publicized, Trump criticized Trudeau as "two-faced" but did not criticize Johnson or other leaders.[298]

After Trump's defeat by Joe Biden in the 2020 United States presidential election, Ben Wallace the United Kingdom's Secretary of State for Defence, said he would miss Donald Trump, calling him a good friend to Britain.[299] After the January 6 United States Capitol attack, merely fourteen days before Trump was scheduled to leave office, Johnson publicly condemned Trump's actions in relation to the event, faulting him with having encouraged the attack's participants.[300]

Johnson and Biden (January 2021 – September 2022)

UK Prime Minister Boris Johnson with US President Joe Biden in the Oval Office, September 2021

Trump lost the 2020 United States presidential election.[301] After Democrat Joe Biden was projected the victor of the election on November 7, Johnson released a statement congratulating him.[294] Johnson indicated that he was anticipating working with Biden on shared priorities, such as climate change, trade security, and declared his belief that the United States was the United Kingdom's most important ally.[294] During his presidential campaign, Biden and his team reportedly did not communicate with United Kingdom officials, as they opted to avoid speaking with foreign officials in order to avoid accusations of collusion with foreign powers in case any nation engaged in foreign electoral intervention in the United States elections.[302] On November 10, Johnson exchanged a congratulatory phone call with Biden.[303]

Analysis of compatibility

Biden has been regarded as to having a less compatible personality to Johnson than Trump had.[304] Dan Balz, noting that Johnson and Biden have different leadership styles, a generational gap in age, and that their respective political parties occupy different positions on the political spectrum, has opined that the two, "are anything but natural soul mates".[173]

After Biden was elected, there was some speculation that Biden would have a less friendly personal relationship with Johnson than Trump did.[294][305] Analysts believed that Trump had more similarities to Johnson than Biden does.[302] After Biden won, Business Insider reported that sources from Biden's campaign had told the outlet that Biden held hostility towards Johnson, believing him to be a right-wing populist who is similar to Trump.[305] In December 2019, Biden had publicly derided Johnson as a, "kind of physical and emotional clone" of Donald Trump.[294][302][305] History related to the two leaders was cited in reports of their likely hostility.[294] During his tenure as vice president in the Obama administration, Biden had concurred with Obama in standing in opposition to a Brexit, while Johnson was a key advocate for it.[294] Biden is a firm supporter of maintaining the Good Friday Agreement, while Johnson had, at times, been characterized as treating as an impediment to implementing Brexit.[306] Johnson's past comments about Biden's friend, political ally, and former boss Barack Obama were regarded as a source of potential animosity for Biden.[294][302][305] Johnson's derisive comments on Biden's former colleague, and fellow Democrat, Hillary Clinton were also regarded as a potential source of animosity for Biden.[302] The degree to which Johnson embraced Trump was also speculated to be a point of bother that Biden may hold.[305] There were further reports that Johnson was viewed even more negatively by vice president-elect Kamala Harris, and that members of the Biden–Harris team did not consider Johnson to be an ally and had ruled out the possibility of a special relationship with him.[307][308] Ahead of Biden's inauguration, analysts speculated that Johnson's priority for a post-Brexit free trade deal between the two nations would not be treated as a priority by Biden.[294] However, some analysts speculated that the two could reach common ground on prioritizing actions to combat climate change.[302]

While analysts generally believe Johnson to have had more political similarities to Trump than to Biden, there are several policy matters where Johnson and his Conservative Party have more common ground with Biden and his Democratic Party than Trump and his Republican Party.[309] For example, the United Kingdom continues to support the Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action both nations had entered with Iran and other nations under the Cameron-Obama period, while Trump withdrew the United States from it.[309] As president, Biden has sought to have the United States rejoin the agreement.[310] Johnson and the Conservative Party have expressed concern over climate change, as have Biden and his Democratic Party, while Trump and his Republican Party have been sceptical towards it.[309] On his first day as president, Biden initiated the readmittance of the United States to the Paris Agreement, which Trump had withdrawn the United States from during his presidency. Johnson praised Biden for this.[311] Trump is critical of NATO, and, as president, had levied the threat of withdrawing the United States from it due to his belief that some member nations were not contributing enough to the organization financially. Biden and Johnson, contrarily, have shared a mutual appreciation of the organization, expressing their belief of it to be a critical component of both nations' collective defense.[312]

Interactions

Biden took office on January 20, 2021. It was reported by The Telegraph that Johnson was the first European leader that Biden made a phone call to after being inaugurated as president.[313] In the first days of his presidency, Biden's administration expressed that the president desired to work closely with Johnson, looking to the 2021 G7 Summit and the 2021 United Nations Climate Change Conference as opportunities for collaboration between the two leaders.[312]

Biden's first overseas trip and first face-to-face meeting with Johnson was at the 2021 G7 Summit, hosted in Cornwall, England in June.[314] Johnson described Biden as a "breath of fresh air", stating "there's so much that [the US] want to do together" with us. The first meeting between the two leaders included plans to re-establish travel links between the US and UK, which had been banned by the US since the start of the pandemic and to agree a deal (to be called the new Atlantic charter), which commits the countries to working together on "the key challenges of this century - cyber security, emerging technologies, global health and climate change". President Biden explicitly "affirmed the special relationship".[315] That charter encompass democracy and human rights of all individuals, rules-based international order and fair trade, territorial integrity and freedom of navigation, protect innovative edge and new markets/standards, terrorism, rules-based global economy, climate crisis and health systems and health protection.[316] Also in their talks, both leaders affirmed a commitment to maintaining the Good Friday Agreement,[317] a matter which Biden is personally greatly concerned about.[318] After their first meeting, both Johnson and Biden characterized their interaction as having affirmed the "special relationship".[304]

Truss and Biden (September 2022 – October 2022)

UK Prime Minister Liz Truss and US President Joe Biden in New York City, September 2022

Liz Truss became Prime Minister of the United Kingdom on September 6, 2022. President Biden said in a congratulatory tweet that he looked forward to "deepening the special relationship" between the US and the UK, and reinstating their commitment to support Ukraine.[319] In a break from tradition, Truss's first phone call as prime minister did not go to the White House, instead choosing to speak to Ukrainian President Volodymyr Zelenskyy before calling Biden later that evening.[320]

Sunak and Biden (October 2022 – July 2024)

UK Prime Minister Rishi Sunak and US President Joe Biden in the Oval Office, June 2023

Rishi Sunak became Prime Minister of the United Kingdom on October 25, 2022. That day, President Biden called him to congratulate him on his appointment, as well as both agreeing to support Ukraine and maintaining the Good Friday Agreement. They both also spoke about cooperation between the two countries, such as AUKUS.[321][322] In March 2023, they both met – alongside Australian Prime Minister Anthony Albanese – at an AUKUS summit in San Diego (where Biden jokingly asked Sunak if he could come to Sunak's California home).[323][324]

Starmer and Biden (July 2024 – present)

UK Prime Minister Keir Starmer and US President Joe Biden in the Oval Office, July 2024

Keir Starmer became Prime Minister of the United Kingdom on July 5, 2024. His first face-to-face meeting with President Biden took place in Washington DC on July 10, 2024 in conjunction with NATO's 75th anniversary summit.[325]

Public opinion

It has been noted that secret defence and intelligence links "that [have] minimal impact on ordinary people [play] a disproportionate role in the transatlantic friendship"[326] and that perspectives on the Special Relationship differ.

Poll findings

A 1942 Gallup poll conducted after Pearl Harbor, before the arrival of American troops and Churchill's heavy promotion of the Special Relationship, showed the wartime ally of the Soviet Union was still more popular than the United States for 62% of Britons. However, only 6% had ever visited the United States and only 35% knew any Americans personally.[327] In 1969, the United States was tied with the Commonwealth as the most important overseas connection for the British public, and Europe came in a distant third. By 1984, after a decade in the European Economic Community, Britons chose Europe as being the most important to them.[328]

British opinion polls from the Cold War revealed ambivalent feelings towards the United States. Thatcher's 1979 agreement to base US cruise missiles in Britain was approved of by only 36% of Britons, and the proportion with little or no trust in the ability of the US to deal wisely with world affairs had soared from 38% in 1977 to 74% in 1984, when 49% wanted US nuclear bases in Britain removed, and 50% would have sent American-controlled cruise missiles back to the United States. At the same time, 59% of Britons supported their own country's nuclear deterrent, with 60% believing Britain should rely on both nuclear and conventional weapons, and 66% opposing unilateral nuclear disarmament. 53% of Britons opposed dismantling the Royal Navy's Polaris submarines. 70% of Britons still considered Americans to be very or fairly trustworthy, and in case of war, the Americans was the ally trusted overwhelmingly to come to Britain's aid and to risk its own security for the sake of that of Britain. They were also the two countries that were most alike in basic values such as willingness to fight for their country and the importance of freedom.[328]

In 1986, 71% of Britons, questioned in a Mori poll the day after Reagan's bombing of Libya, disagreed with Thatcher's decision to allow the use of RAF bases, and two thirds in a Gallup survey opposed the bombing itself, the opposite of US opinion.[329] The all-time low poll rating of Britain in the United States came in 1994, during the split over the Bosnian War, when 56% of Americans interviewed considered Britons to be close allies.[330][331]

Anti-war protest in Trafalgar Square, February 2007

In a 1997 Harris poll published after Blair's election, 63% of people in the United States viewed Britain as a close ally, up by 1% from 1996, 'confirming that the long-running "special relationship" with America's transatlantic cousins is still alive and well'.[332] Canada ranked first with 73%, while Australia came third, with 48%.[333] Popular awareness of the historic link was fading in the parent country, however. In a 1997 Gallup poll, 60% of the British public said they regretted the end of Empire and 70% expressed pride in the imperial past, 53% wrongly supposed that the United States had never been a British possession.[334]

In 1998, 61% of Britons polled by ICM said they believed they had more in common with US citizens than they did with the rest of Europe. 64% disagreed with the sentence 'Britain does what the US government tells us to do'. A majority also backed Blair's support of Bill Clinton's strategy on Iraq, 42% saying action should be taken to topple Saddam Hussein, with 24% favouring diplomatic action and a further 24%, military action. A majority of Britons aged 24 or over said they disliked Blair supporting Clinton over the Lewinsky scandal.[335]

A 2006 poll of the American public showed that Britain, as an 'ally in the war on terror', was viewed more positively than any other country, and 76% of the US people polled viewed the British as an 'ally in the War on Terror' according to Rasmussen Reports.[336] According to Harris Interactive, 74% of Americans viewed Great Britain as a 'close ally in the war in Iraq', well ahead of next-ranked Canada at 48%.

A June 2006 poll by Populus for The Times showed that the number of Britons agreeing that 'it is important for Britain's long-term security that we have a close and special relationship with America' had fallen to 58% (from 71% in April) and that 65% believed that 'Britain's future lies more with Europe than America.'[337] Only 44% agreed that 'America is a force for good in the world.' A later poll during the Israel-Lebanon conflict found that 63% of Britons felt that the United Kingdom was tied too closely to the United States.[338] A 2008 poll by The Economist showed that Britons' views differed considerably from Americans' views when asked about the topics of religion, values, and national interest. The Economist remarked:

For many Britons, steeped in the lore of how English-speaking democracies rallied around Britain in the second world war, [the special relationship] is something to cherish. For Winston Churchill, [...] it was a bond forged in battle. On the eve of the war in Iraq, as Britain prepared to fight alongside America, Tony Blair spoke of the 'blood price' that Britain should be prepared to pay in order to sustain the relationship. In America, it is not nearly as emotionally charged. Indeed American politicians are promiscuous with the term, trumpeting their 'special relationships' with Israel, Germany and South Korea, among others. 'Mention the special relationship to Americans and they say yes, it's a really special relationship,' notes sardonically Sir Christopher Meyer, a former British ambassador to Washington.[339]

In January 2010 a Leflein poll conducted for Atlantic Bridge found that 57% of people in the US considered the special relationship with Britain to be the world's most important bilateral partnership, with 2% disagreeing. 60% of people in the US regarded Britain as the country most likely to support the United States in a crisis, and Canada came second on 24% and Australia third on 4%.[340][341]

In May 2010, a poll conducted in the UK by YouGov revealed that 66% of those surveyed held a favourable view of the US and 62% agreed with the assertion that America was Britain's most important ally. However, the survey also revealed that 85% of British citizens believed that the UK has little or no influence on American policies and that 62% thought that America did not consider British interests.[342] Another poll by YouGov in September 2016 revealed that 57% still believed in the special relationship, whilst 37% did not.[343]

In a 2021 Pew Research Center poll, 31% of American respondents picked Britain as their closest foreign policy partner, making it by far the most picked choice (Canada was a distant second with 13%).[344]

Iraq War

Following the 2003 invasion of Iraq, senior British figures criticized the refusal of the US government to heed British advice regarding postwar plans for Iraq, specifically the Coalition Provisional Authority's de-Ba'athification policy and the critical importance of preventing the power vacuum in which the insurgency then developed. British Defence Secretary Geoff Hoon later stated that the United Kingdom 'lost the argument' with the Bush administration over rebuilding Iraq.[345]

Extraordinary rendition

US Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice with British Foreign Secretary David Miliband, September 2007

Assurances made by the United States to the United Kingdom that 'extraordinary rendition' flights had never landed on British territory were later shown to be false when official US records proved that such flights had landed at Diego Garcia repeatedly.[346] The revelation was an embarrassment for British foreign secretary David Miliband, who apologised to Parliament.[347][348]

Criminal law

In 2003, the United States pressed the United Kingdom to agree to an extradition treaty, which proponents argued, allowed for equal extradition requirements between the two countries.[349][350] Critics argued that the UK was obligated to make a strong prima facie case to US courts before extradition would be granted[351][352] but that extradition from the United Kingdom to the United States was only a matter of administrative decision, without prima facie evidence.[353] That had been implemented as an antiterrorist measure in the wake of 11 September 2001 attacks. Very soon, however, it was being used by the United States to extradite and prosecute a number of high-profile London businessmen (like the NatWest Three and Ian Norris[354]) on fraud charges. Contrasts have been drawn with the Americans' harboring of Provisional IRA volunteers in the 1970s to the 1990s and repeated refusals to extradite them to Britain.[355] The Death of Harry Dunn who was killed by the wife of a USA CIA officer on the 27th of August 2019 also caused criticism of the extradition treaty after Anne Sacoolas, the defendant, repatriated to the US and claimed Diplomatic Immunity against charges.[356]

On 30 September 2006, the US Senate unanimously ratified the 2003 treaty. Ratification had been slowed by complaints from some Irish-American groups that the treaty would create new legal jeopardy for US citizens who opposed British policy in Northern Ireland.[357] The Spectator condemned the three-year delay as 'an appalling breach in a long-treasured relationship'.[358]

The United States also refused to accede to another priority of the Blair government, the treaty setting up the International Criminal Court.[359]

Trade policy

Trade disputes and attendant job fears have sometimes strained the Special Relationship. The United States has been accused of pursuing an aggressive trade policy by using or ignoring World Trade Organization rules. The aspects causing most difficulty to the United Kingdom have been a successful challenge to the protection of small family banana farmers in the West Indies from large US corporations such as the American Financial Group,[360] and high tariffs on British steel products.[361] In 2002, Blair denounced Bush's imposition of tariffs on steel as "unacceptable, unjustified and wrong", but although Britain's biggest steelmaker, Corus, called for protection from dumping by developing nations, the Confederation of British Industry urged the government not to start a "tit-for-tat".[362]

See also

References

  1. ^ a b James, Wither (March 2006). "An Endangered Partnership: The Anglo-American Defence Relationship in the Early Twenty-first Century". European Security. 15 (1): 47–65. doi:10.1080/09662830600776694. ISSN 0966-2839. S2CID 154879821.
  2. ^ a b c Hewitt, Gavin (20 April 2016). "Strains on a special relationship". Retrieved 6 April 2019.
  3. ^ "Special Relationships in World Politics: Inter-state Friendship and Diplomacy after the Second World War, 1st Edition (Hardback) - Routledge". Routledge.com. Retrieved 25 April 2019.
  4. ^ a b c d "The UK and US: The myth of the special relationship". aljazeera.com.
  5. ^ John Baylis, "The 'special Relationship' A Diverting British Myth?," in Cyril Buffet, Beatrice Heuser (eds.), Haunted by History: Myths in International Relations, ch. 10, Berghahn Books, 1998, ISBN 9781571819406
  6. ^ Burns, John F. (28 December 2012). "Falklands War Caused Rare Friction for Thatcher and Reagan". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 6 April 2019.
  7. ^ Allen, Nick (14 November 2016). "Barack Obama delivers parting snub to special relationship with Britain by naming Angela Merkel his 'closest partner'". The Daily Telegraph. Archived from the original on 12 January 2022.
  8. ^ "Boris and Donald: A very special relationship". POLITICO.
  9. ^ Rigby, Beth (15 July 2018). "Backpedalling Donald Trump tries to warm up a cooling special relationship". Sky News. Retrieved 15 July 2018.
  10. ^ Existence in the 19th century and early 20th century:
    • "The Anglo-American Arbitration Treaty". The Times. 14 January 1897. p. 5, col. C., quoting the "semi-official organ" the North-German Gazette: "There is, therefore, not the slightest occasion for other States to adopt as their model and example a form of agreement which may, perhaps, be advantage to England and America in their special relationship".
    • "The New American Ambassador". The Times. 7 June 1913. p. 9, col. C. "No Ambassador to this or any other nation is similarly honoured.... It is intended to be, we need hardly say, precisely what it is, a unique compliment, a recognition on our part that Great Britain and the United States stand to one another in a special relationship, and that between them some departure from the merely official attitude is most natural".
    • "The Conference and the Far East". The Times. 21 November 1921. p. 11, col. B, C. "The answer of the [Japanese] Ambassador [Baron Kato] shows that he and his Government even then [1911] appreciated the special relationship between this country [the United Kingdom] and the United States.... That, probably, the Japanese Government understands now, as clearly as their predecessors understood in 1911 that we could never make war on the United States".
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A statue of General Eisenhower in front of the Embassy of the United States of America to the Court of St. James's

Further reading

External links